Recent events in Nagorno-Karabakh in the conflict between Azerbaijan and Armenia have raised the issue of possible genocide and the role that the 1948 Convention on Genocide may play.
Genocide is the most extreme consequence of racial discrimination and ethnic hatred. Genocide has as its aim the destruction, wholly or in part, of a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group as such. The term was proposed by the legal scholar Raphael Lemkin, drawing on the Greek genos (people or tribe) and the Latin –cide (to kill) (1). The policies and war crimes of the Nazi German government were foremost on the minds of those who drafted the Genocide Convention, but the policy was not limited to the Nazis (2).
The Genocide Convention is a landmark in the efforts to develop a system of universally accepted standards which promote an equitable world order for all members of the human family to live in dignity. Four articles are at the heart of this Convention and are here quoted in full to understand the process of implementation proposed by the Association of World Citizens (AWC), especially of the need for an improved early warning system.
Article I
In the present Convention, genocide means any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such:
(a) Killing members of the group; (b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; (c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; (d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; (e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.
Unlike most humanitarian international law which sets out standards but does not establish punishment, Article III sets out that the following acts shall be punishable:
(a) Genocide; (b) Conspiracy to commit genocide; (c) Direct and public incitement to commit genocide; (d) Attempt to commit genocide; (e) Complicity in genocide
Article IV
Persons committing genocide or any of the other acts enumerated in article III shall be punished, whether they are constitutionally responsible rulers, public officials or private individuals.
Article VIII
Any Contracting Party may call upon the competent organs of the United Nations to take such action under the Charter of the United Nations as they consider appropriate for the prevention and suppression of acts of genocide or any of the other acts enumerated in article III.
Numerous reports have reached the Secretariat of the United Nations (UN) of actual, or potential, situations of genocide: mass killings; cases of slavery and slavery-like practices, in many instances with a strong racial, ethnic, and religious connotation — with children as the main victims, in the sense of article II (b) and (c). Despite factual evidence of these genocides and mass killings as in Sudan, the former Yugoslavia, Rwanda, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Sierra Leone and in other places, no Contracting Party to the Genocide Convention has called for any action under article VIII of the Convention.
As Mr. Nicodème Ruhashyankiko of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities wrote in his study of proposed mechanisms for the study of information on genocide and genocidal practices “A number of allegations of genocide have been made since the adoption of the 1948 Convention. In the absence of a prompt investigation of these allegations by an impartial body, it has not been possible to determine whether they were well-founded. Either they have given rise to sterile controversy or, because of the political circumstances, nothing further has been heard about them.”
Raphael Lemkin
Yet the need for speedy preventive measures has been repeatedly underlined by UN Officials. On December 8, 1998, in his address at UNESCO, UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan said “Many thought, no doubt, that the horrors of the Second World War — the camps, the cruelty, the exterminations, the Holocaust — could not happen again. And yet they have, in Cambodia, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, In Rwanda. Our time — this decade even — has shown us that man’s capacity for evil knows no limits. Genocide — the destruction of an entire people on the basis of ethnic or national origins — is now a word of our time, too, a stark and haunting reminder of why our vigilance must be eternal.”
In her address Translating words into action to the UN General Assembly on December 10, 1998, the then High Commissioner for Human Rights, Ms. Mary Robinson, declared “The international community’s record in responding to, let alone preventing, gross human rights abuses does not give grounds for encouragement. Genocide is the most flagrant abuse of human rights imaginable. Genocide was vivid in the minds of those who framed the Universal Declaration, working as they did in the aftermath of the Second World War. The slogan then was ‘never again’. Yet genocide and mass killing have happened again — and have happened before the eyes of us all — in Rwanda, Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia and other parts of the globe.”
We need to heed the early warning signs of genocide. Officially directed massacres of civilians of whatever numbers cannot be tolerated, for the organizers of genocide must not believe that more widespread killing will be ignored. Yet killing is not the only warning sign. The Convention drafters, recalling the radio addresses of Hitler and the constant flow of words and images, set out as punishable acts “direct and public incitement to commit genocide”. The Genocide Convention, in its provisions concerning public incitement, sets the limits of political discourse. It is well documented that public incitement — whether by Governments or certain non-governmental actors, including political movements — to discriminate against, to separate forcibly, to deport or physically eliminate large categories of the population of a given State, or the population of a State in its entirety, just because they belong to certain racial, ethnic, or religious groups, sooner or later leads to war. It is also evident that, at the present time, in a globalized world, even local conflicts have a direct impact on international peace and security in general. Therefore, the Genocide Convention is also a constant reminder of the need to moderate political discourse, especially constant and repeated accusations against a religious, ethnic, and social category of persons. Had this been done in Rwanda, with regard to the Radio Mille Collines, perhaps that premeditated and announced genocide could have been avoided or mitigated.
For the UN to be effective in the prevention of genocide, there needs to be an authoritative body which can investigate and monitor a situation well in advance of the outbreak of violence. As has been noted, any Party to the Genocide Convention (and most States are Parties) can bring evidence to the UN Security Council, but none has. In the light of repeated failures and due to pressure from nongovernmental organizations, the Secretary-General has named an individual advisor on genocide to the UN Secretariat. However, he is one advisor among many, and there is no public access to the information that he may receive.
Therefore, a relevant existing body must be strengthened to be able to deal with the first signs of tensions, especially ‘direct and public incitement to commit genocide.” The Committee for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) created to monitor the 1965 International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination would be the appropriate body to strengthen, especially by increasing its resources and the number of UN Secretariat members which service the CERD. Through its urgent procedure mechanisms, CERD has the possibility of taking early-warning measures aimed at preventing existing strife from escalating into conflicts, and to respond to problems requiring immediate attention. A stronger CERD more able to investigate fully situations should mark the world’s commitment to the high standards of world law set out in the Genocide Convention.
Notes
1) Raphael Lemkin. Axis Rule in Occupied Europe (Washington: Carnegie Endowment for World Peace, 1944).
2) For a good overview, see: Samantha Power. A Problem from Hell: America and the Age of Genocide (New York: Basic Books, 2002)
3) William Schabas, Genocide in International Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000)
4) E/CN.4/Sub.2/1778/416, Para 614
Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.
Ces paroles écrites par Charles Aznavour, né Sharnough Aznavourian, font partie de Pour toi Arménie, la chanson dont il était l’auteur avec son beau-frère et complice musical de toujours Georges Garvarentz en 1988. Cet hommage amoureux à la terre de ses racines familiales, le plus célèbre des artistes franco-arméniens ne l’avait pas écrit seulement par un élan du cœur. Cette chanson était une urgence – l’urgence d’aider son Arménie frappée par un tremblement de terre meurtrier et dont la population déjà démunie s’était trouvée abandonnée à son sort.
Le 7 décembre 1988, la ville de Spitak, au nord de ce qui était alors la République socialiste soviétique d’Arménie au sein de l’URSS vivant la perestroïka de Mikhaïl Gorbatchev, à 11H41 très précises, un séisme de 6,9 sur l’échelle de Richter dévaste la ville. Dans cette Union soviétique qui avoue désormais ses faiblesses, les services de secours ne parviennent à sauver que quatre-vingts personnes des ruines des immeubles effondrés, tandis que vingt-cinq à trente mille personnes trouvent la mort, plus de quinze mille en sortent blessées et cinq cent trente mille n’ont désormais plus nulle part où vivre. Moscou et son affidée d’alors Erevan dépassées par l’ampleur du drame, la diaspora arménienne prend le relais et l’aide à la terre d’origine meurtrie s’organise – en dehors de l’Arménie.
Suivant l’exemple américain de Harry Belafonte, Quincy Jones et Lionel Richie en 1985 avec We Are the Worldpour l’Ethiopie, Aznavour rassemble quatre-vingt-huit autres chanteurs, acteurs et personnalités de la télévision avec lesquels il enregistre Pour toi Arménie en annonçant que tous les profits du 45 tours, en cette époque sans le streaming et où l’on achète encore des disques vinyles, iront à l’aide humanitaire sur place. Et le public répond présent, le 45 tours entrant directement premier au Top 50, le classement national hebdomadaire des ventes, dont il gardera la première place pendant plusieurs semaines. C’est Aznavour lui-même qui conclut la chanson par le nom de l’Arménie dans la langue nationale, «Hayastan !», tant en français qu’en italien et même en anglais, dans une version américaine que sa notoriété internationale lui permet d’enregistrer avec le soutien de nombreuses célébrités des écrans, grand et petit, ainsi que de la chanson comme Dionne Warwick.
Le 1er octobre prochain verra les cinq ans de la disparition de Charles Aznavour, artiste de légende, humanitaire mais aussi ambassadeur d’Arménie à l’UNESCO puis au Palais des Nations, dont l’Association of World Citizens (AWC) a un jour croisé le chemin pour venir en aide à une habitante de Erevan chassée de son domicile par des violences conjugales. S’il était encore des nôtres, comment réagirait-il au drame que vit actuellement l’Arménie, drame qui, contrairement à celui de Spitak en 1988, n’est pas le fait de la nature mais d’un ennemi bien plus dangereux encore pour l’être humain – lui-même ?
La seule absence de combat ne sera jamais la paix
Entre 1988 et 1994, l’Arménie et son voisin de l’est, l’Azerbaïdjan, républiques soviétiques avant de devenir indépendantes à la faveur de la disparition de l’Union soviétique fin 1991, se sont affrontées militairement autour d’un territoire voisin de l’Arménie, peuplé pour l’essentiel d’Arméniens mais appartenant juridiquement à l’Azerbaïdjan – le Haut-Karabakh, ou Nagorno-Karabakh, sur une partie duquel se tient la République d’Artsakh reconnue par Erevan. Soutenu par Gorbatchev du temps de l’URSS, l’Azerbaïdjan avait refusé tout transfert de souveraineté du Haut-Karabakh à l’Arménie, position qu’il a maintenue en tant qu’État souverain et maintient encore aujourd’hui.
(C) Bourrichon
En 1992, après plusieurs années d’un conflit dominé par l’Azerbaïdjan doté d’un large soutien du monde musulman, l’Arménie remporte de premières victoires décisives. Deux ans plus tard, en mai, c’est un Azerbaïdjan désormais épuisé par une nette domination militaire arménienne qui accepte une trêve, qui ne règle pas le conflit du Haut-Karabakh mais le «gèle» sans solution, laissant le territoire indépendant de facto mais non reconnu sur le plan international. Au cours des années, les liens avec l’Arménie vont se resserrer, culminant avec l’élection en 2008 d’un natif du Haut-Karabakh, Serge Sarkissian, à la présidence de l’Arménie qu’il occupera pendant dix ans. Entre l’Arménie et le Haut-Karabakh, un seul lien terrestre direct : le corridor de Latchine, large de quelques cinq kilomètres et long de soixante-cinq. Au-delà, l’Azerbaïdjan vaincu, rêvant d’une revanche au détour de l’histoire.
Fin septembre 2020, après le traumatisme d’une année marquée par la pandémie de Covid-19 et qui verra le monde quasi mis à l’arrêt, avec un tiers de la population de la planète confinée à son domicile, l’Azerbaïdjan prend de court une communauté internationale encore sous le choc en lançant une violente offensive contre le Haut-Karabakh. Cette fois, Bakou garde l’ascendant du début à la fin des hostilités, qui vient le 10 novembre avec un cessez-le-feu conclu à l’issue d’une médiation de la Fédération de Russie, avec de lourdes pertes de territoire pour l’Arménie qui doit de céder un tiers du Haut-Karabakh et en retirer ses troupes, Moscou déployant les siennes pour maintenir le cessez-le-feu. Pour les civils arméniens, c’est le temps de l’exil, non sans avoir pour beaucoup d’entre eux brûlé leur maison plutôt que de la voir accueillir des Azerbaïdjanais.
A Latchine, ce sont les forces de maintien de la paix russes qui prennent position, l’Arménie conservant le droit d’utiliser le passage terrestre avec le Haut-Karabakh. Seulement, à partir de février 2022, les mêmes forces armées russes qui maintiennent la paix entre Arménie et Azerbaïdjan deviennent aussi les forces d’invasion de l’Ukraine, qui vaut à Moscou une vaste et légitime condamnation internationale. Qui peut prétendre assurer la paix entre deux belligérants qui, dans le même temps, envahit son voisin ? L’Azerbaïdjan ne va pas tarder à le comprendre. Et dans cette paix qui n’en était pas une depuis la trêve de 1994, l’étant encore moins depuis le cessez-le-feu de 2020, Bakou va en tirer parti. De la pire manière qui soit.
En novembre 2020, des Yazidis se portent volontaires pour rejoindre les forces armées arméniennes et combattre au Haut-Karabakh (C) Armenian Army Media
L’arme de la faim et la «guerre sale» de Bakou
En cet automne 2020, entre Arménie et Azerbaïdjan, sur le Haut-Karabakh, match nul. Le bon moment, sans doute, pour entamer des discussions de paix entre les deux pays qui savent désormais chacun ce que c’est que d’être vainqueur et vaincu. Mais personne ne s’y aventure, et tout comme en 1994, la situation semble gelée sans espoir d’un dénouement définitif du conflit après plus de trente ans. Lorsque survient, du côté de l’Azerbaïdjan, l’impensable.
Le 12 décembre 2022, des Azerbaïdjanais se présentant comme des «militants écologistes» prennent position à l’entrée du corridor de Latchine, entendant bloquer une «exploitation illégale» de minerais locaux. Niant tout lien avec ces «militants écologistes» chez lesquels les slogans pour l’environnement cohabitent avec le drapeau azerbaïdjanais, le Président Ilham Aliyev se montre envers eux étonnamment indulgent par rapport à ses habitudes envers la société civile, habitudes dont nombre de militants ont payé le prix en cellule. Et pour cause, la société civile, la vraie, détient les preuves du lien direct entre ces «militants écologistes» et Bakou.
La preuve ultime, c’est justement Bakou qui la fournira lui-même, le 11 juillet dernier. Ce jour-là, ses propres troupes, drapeaux en main, bloquent désormais officiellement Latchine, accusant la Croix-Rouge de «contrebande» à l’occasion de ses livraisons d’aide humanitaire au Haut-Karabakh. L’organisation nie farouchement l’accusation, en effet de mauvaise foi puisque l’Azerbaïdjan prend pour prétexte les méfaits de quatre chauffeurs extérieurs à la Croix-Rouge qui, dans leurs véhicules personnels, ont tenté de faire passer «des marchandises commerciales» au Haut-Karabakh, bien sûr à l’insu de l’institution humanitaire qui a aussitôt mis fin à leurs contrats.
Mais, pour avoir tenté de réaliser un profit dérisoire, ces quatre malfaiteurs se voient toujours moins punis que le sont les Arméniens du Haut-Karabakh. Le territoire arménien en terre d’Azerbaïdjan se trouve désormais soumis à un blocus total, contraint à un rationnement de la nourriture et du gaz, et tout transfert médical d’urgence de patients vers Erevan est devenu impossible. Après avoir vaincu l’Arménie par les armes conventionnelles, l’Azerbaïdjan use désormais sans complexe contre les Arméniens de l’arme ultime, plus impitoyable encore que l’arme nucléaire qui abrégerait en quelques secondes les souffrances de celles et ceux qu’elle frapperait – l’arme de la faim.
Sous peu, le monde entier s’indigne. Fin août, un convoi humanitaire emmené par plusieurs élus politiques français de diverses tendances idéologiques, à l’exception notable et habituelle de l’extrême droite, se présente à Latchine en tentant de faire route vers le Haut-Karabakh. Pas de surprise – refoulé. Depuis l’Arménie, les dirigeants d’un think tank en appellent à la mise en place d’un pont aérien, à l’image de celui créé par les Alliés durant le blocus de Berlin en 1949. Fait exceptionnel, encore plus depuis le début de l’invasion de l’Ukraine en février 2022, Washington et Moscou se voient unanimes dans leur demande à Bakou en vue d’une levée du blocus du corridor de Latchine.
Au-delà de la politique, c’est le droit qui ne tarde pas à se manifester, le droit international pénal qui sait tout ce que le nom de l’Arménie signifie pour lui et pour son histoire.
D’un litige sur la souveraineté d’un territoire donné, le conflit prend soudain un goût amer de déjà-vu. Entre les Azerbaïdjanais descendants des Ottomans d’avant la Première Guerre Mondiale et les Arméniens victimes du génocide ottoman en 1915, c’est maintenant le souvenir du génocide qui se rallume dans les esprits, en Arménie et au Haut-Karabakh bien sûr mais, plus encore, dans le reste du monde.
Ronald Suny, professeur de science politique à l’Université du Michigan, cité par CNN, déclare : «Maintenant qu’il a gagné la guerre de 2020 contre l’Arménie, l’Azerbaïdjan a pour but ultime de chasser les Arméniens d’Artsakh hors de l’Azerbaïdjan. Mais plutôt que de recourir directement à la violence, qui susciterait les condamnations à l’étranger, Bakou est décidée à rendre la vie impossible aux Arméniens, les affamer et faire pression sur eux pour qu’ils partent». Pour l’International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS), aucun doute, le blocus du Haut-Karabakh engendre un risque de génocide.
Quant à Luis Moreno Ocampo, le premier Procureur de la Cour pénale internationale à sa création en 2002, dans une Opinion d’Expert datée du 7 août, il monte encore d’un cran en écrivant d’entrée «Il est en train de se produire un génocide contre 120 000 Arméniens vivant au Nagorno-Karabakh, également connu sous le nom d’Artsakh».
Sur le blog Social Europe, le spécialiste gréco-arménien des relations internationales George Meneshian appelle enfin l’Europe à «se réveiller» à la réalité du conflit entre l’Arménie et l’Azerbaïdjan, sous peine de devenir «complice de génocide».
Vouloir vaincre son adversaire en affamant sa population civile, c’est déjà en soi inhumain et lâche, surtout lorsqu’une victoire militaire nette vous place en position de force pour négocier un accord de paix. De la part de l’Azerbaïdjan, pourtant, ce n’est même pas le pire. Parler de génocide, c’est parler de la volonté d’exterminer un peuple, et qui parle d’exterminer un peuple parle d’une notion simple et claire – le racisme.
Capture d’écran de Nor Haratch, publication en ligne arménienne basée en France.
Contre le racisme envers les Arméniens d’Azerbaïdjan, l’arme du droit
Dans son argumentaire expert de vingt-huit pages, Luis Moreno Ocampo, montrant qu’il se souvient que la juridiction dont il a été le premier procureur est née de l’expérience aussi douloureuse qu’indispensable des Tribunaux pénaux internationaux pour l’ex-Yougoslavie (TPIY) et le Rwanda (TPIR), cite une abondance jurisprudence de l’un et de l’autre pour établir que, parce que le génocide ne s’avoue jamais, il peut et doit donc se déduire des actes du génocidaire, actes qu’il écrit reconnaître dans le blocus par l’Azerbaïdjan du corridor de Latchine.
Mais le magistrat sait aussi mettre un nom sur le premier mal qui frappe les Arméniens, sur la première faute de l’Azerbaïdjan, sur les premiers fondements de cette guerre de la faim. Un mal «prenant naissance dans l’esprit des hommes», dans les mots de l’Acte constitutif de l’UNESCO, tout comme le droit prend naissance dans l’esprit de l’être humain et, selon l’adage romain, ubi societas, ibi jus, là où il y a la société, il y a le droit. Et dans une société où sévit, voire règne, le racisme, il faut bien qu’il y ait le droit, celui de la Société Humaine Universelle que définit Olivier de Frouville, contre celui de la Société des Etats Souverains qu’il lui oppose et qui, comme jadis par exemple en Afrique du Sud, peut décider que le racisme est loi.
Bien que l’Arménie revendique le Haut-Karabakh et que la République d’Artsakh se veuille arménienne, techniquement et juridiquement parlant, les Arméniens du Haut-Karabakh demeurent des habitants de l’Azerbaïdjan, derrière le corridor de Latchine qui, sous blocus, ne peut plus jouer son rôle de lien terrestre unique avec l’Arménie. Derrière la rhétorique guerrière de Bakou et l’exemple qu’elle constitue de «création de l’ennemi» au sens que lui donne John Paul Lederach, ce que voient les instances internationales, à commencer par l’ONU, c’est bel et bien du racisme, celui des Azéris majoritaires en Azerbaïdjan contre les Arméniens de ce même pays qui demeurent, aux yeux de la communauté internationale, des Azerbaïdjanais. Et sur le racisme que subissent ces Azerbaïdjanais arméniens de la part de leurs compatriotes azéris, ce ne sont ni les faits ni les réactions qui manquent.
Le 21 avril 2023, le Représentant permanent de l’Arménie auprès du Siège des Nations Unies écrivait au Secrétaire Général, Antonio Guterres, en rappelant l’un des épisodes les plus tragiques de l’histoire des Arméniens d’Azerbaïdjan. Il parlait du massacre de Soumgaït, ville où, alors que l’Arménie soviétique commençait à revendiquer le Haut-Karabakh, un pogrom azéri avait décimé la population arménienne locale, causant des dizaines de morts, encore plus de blessés, des viols, des pillages et des destructions, toujours contre les mêmes – les Arméniens. Il rappelait les multiples condamnations de l’Azerbaïdjan, morales ou judiciaires, de la part des instances internationales, établissant un lien entre Soumgaït et la haine raciale contemporaine contre les Arméniens.
Et de la part de Erevan, il ne s’agissait pas de lawfare, de cette guerre judiciaire que l’on mène lorsque les armes n’ont pu vous apporter la victoire. Le racisme d’Etat azerbaïdjanais contre les Arméniens n’est pas une simple proclamation politique ; il est une réalité de terrain, et pour Bakou, il s’est mué en une excuse commode pour employer une arme sale, l’arme de la faim, contre le Haut-Karabakh.
Le 7 décembre 2021, à peine plus d’un an après la reprise des combats et la défaite arménienne, la Cour internationale de Justice statuait, saisie par l’Arménie, sur une demande de mesures conservatoires pour le respect de la Convention internationale sur l’Élimination de Toutes les Formes de Discrimination raciale (CIEDR), Erevan demandant à la Cour d’ordonner à l’Azerbaïdjan de changer d’attitude
«— en s’abstenant de se livrer à des pratiques de nettoyage ethnique contre les Arméniens ;
— en s’abstenant de commettre, de glorifier, de récompenser ou de cautionner des actes de racisme contre les Arméniens, y compris les prisonniers de guerre, les otages et d’autres détenus ;
— en s’abstenant de tenir ou de tolérer des discours haineux visant les Arméniens, y compris dans les ouvrages pédagogiques ;
— en s’abstenant de bannir la langue arménienne, de détruire le patrimoine culturel arménien ou d’éliminer de toute autre manière l’existence de la présence culturelle historiquearménienne, ou d’empêcher les Arméniens d’avoir accès à celle‑ci et d’en jouir ;
— en punissant tout acte de discrimination raciale contre les Arméniens, qu’il soit commis dans la sphère publique ou privée, y compris lorsqu’il est le fait d’agents de l’État ;
— en garantissant aux Arméniens, y compris les prisonniers de guerre, les otages et d’autres détenus, la jouissance de leurs droits dans des conditions d’égalité ;
— en adoptant la législation nécessaire pour s’acquitter des obligations que lui fait la CIEDR ;
— en garantissant aux Arméniens un traitement égal devant les tribunaux et tout autre organe administrant la justice ainsi qu’une protection et une voie de recours effectives contre les actes de discrimination raciale ;
— en s’abstenant d’entraver l’enregistrement et les activités des ONG et d’arrêter, de détenir et de condamner les militants des droits de l’homme ou toute autre personne œuvrant pour la réconciliation avec l’Arménie et les Arméniens; et
— en prenant des mesures efficaces pour combattre les préjugés contre les Arméniens et des mesures spéciales pour assurer comme il convient le développement de ce groupe».
Dans sa décision, la Cour internationale de Justice avait finalement estimé que
«1) La République d’Azerbaïdjan doit, conformément aux obligations que lui impose la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale,
a) Par quatorze voix contre une,
Protéger contre les voies de fait et les sévices toutes les personnes arrêtées en relation avec le conflit de 2020 qui sont toujours en détention et garantir leur sûreté et leur droit à l’égalité devant la loi ;
b) A l’unanimité,
Prendre toutes les mesures nécessaires pour empêcher l’incitation et l’encouragement à la haine et à la discrimination raciales, y compris par ses agents et ses institutions publiques, à l’égard des personnes d’origine nationale ou ethnique arménienne ;
c) Par treize voix contre deux,
Prendre toutes les mesures nécessaires pour empêcher et punir les actes de dégradation et de profanation du patrimoine culturel arménien, notamment, mais pas seulement, les églises et autres lieux de culte, monuments, sites, cimetières et artefacts ;
2) A l’unanimité,
Les deux Parties doivent s’abstenir de tout acte qui risquerait d’aggraver ou d’étendre le différend dont la Cour est saisie ou d’en rendre le règlement plus difficile».
La haute juridiction onusienne reconnaissait ainsi que la question du Haut-Karabakh n’était pas, ou n’était plus, seulement celle de la souveraineté sur ce territoire de l’un ou de l’autre des deux pays qui le réclamait. Il s’agissait bien, au-delà d’une simple dispute territoriale, de racisme.
Et comme le relève Luis Moreno Ocampo dans son Opinion d’Expert, le 22 septembre 2022, dans ses Observations finales concernant le rapport de l’Azerbaïdjan valant dixième à douzième rapports périodiques, le Comité CIEDR fustigeait le pays pour «[l’]incitation à la haine raciale et la propagation de stéréotypes racistes à l’encontre de personnes d’origine nationale ou ethnique arménienne, notamment sur Internet et dans les médias sociaux, ainsi que par des personnalités publiques et des hauts responsables, et le manque d’informations détaillées sur les enquêtes, les poursuites, les déclarations de culpabilité et les sanctions liées à de tels actes». Une constante de racisme par trop voyante pour que Bakou puisse réduire le blocus du Haut-Karabakh à une simple protestation d’écologistes ou, aujourd’hui, à une mesure devant empêcher la contrebande, excuses si faciles qu’elles en deviennent insultantes.
Notre époque a appris, et Luis Moreno Ocampo a bien compris que c’était là qu’il fallait frapper d’entrée, à oublier les génocides, du moins à les minimiser. Là où jadis, l’évocation de la Shoah juive, du Samudaripen rom ou, justement, du génocide arménien amenait une autorité morale au propos tenu, aujourd’hui, sous prétexte de «point Godwin», il devient quasi disqualifiant d’y faire référence. Admettons, entendu, soulever un génocide, c’est un pathos alarmiste. Mais alors, que dire de l’effroyable niveau de racisme contre les Arméniens constaté et condamné plus d’une fois par l’ONU en Azerbaïdjan, sinon qu’il est la meilleure preuve que le blocus du corridor de Latchine représente, si ce n’est un génocide en soi, du moins son ultime prélude ?
Une certaine conception de l’humanité mise à l’épreuve
S’il s’était parfois mis dans la peau des losers, comme dans Je m’voyais déjà, Poker et Je ne peux pas rentrer chez moi, Charles Aznavour chantait aussi pour dénoncer l’injustice, chantant Comme ils disent en 1972 alors que l’homosexualité est en France réprimée comme un délit, Mourir d’aimer sur l’affaire Gabrielle Russier et Les émigrants en pleine ascension du Front National et de ses thèses xénophobes. Légitime à écrire et produire Pour toi Arménie, il ne l’était pas du seul fait d’être arménien d’origine mais parce que son travail d’artiste parlait pour lui. Autrement, qui sait si l’initiative aurait rencontré le même succès ?
De même que Pour toi Arménie n’avait rien d’un phénomène «de fait», ici le fait d’un chanteur français d’origine arménienne, il n’existe aucune paix «de fait» après un conflit, la paix se construisant, sinon avant la fin des hostilités, du moins dès qu’elle intervient puis sans cesse jusqu’à ce que les belligérants comprennent qu’un accord, ou traité, formel doit sceller pour toujours leur bonne volonté et ouvrir la voie à l’avenir. Ce travail réalisé en 1994, l’offensive azerbaïdjanaise de 2020 serait devenue bien moins probable, et avec elle, cette guerre de la faim d’aujourd’hui.
En Ukraine se joue la survie d’une certaine conception du droit international, celle qui veut que l’agresseur ne soit pas récompensé de sa conduite contre l’agressé, sanctions de divers ordres à l’appui contre Moscou. Plus au nord, au Haut-Karabakh, l’enjeu n’a pas besoin pour se définir d’un manuel de droit. Lorsque l’arme choisie contre l’ennemi désigné est la faim, c’est bien une certaine conception de l’humanité qui est mise à l’épreuve, une conception qui transcende les frontières des États, qu’elles soient ou non reconnues par les autres États, une conception qui accorde toute sa valeur au droit, même s’il ne produit pas d’effet immédiat car il n’en incarne pas moins les principes qui guident une conscience. Cette conception, soit le monde agit pour la défendre au Haut-Karabakh, soit il s’expose à ce qu’elle ne soit plus garantie nulle part.
Bernard J. Henry est Officier des Relations Extérieures de l’Association of World Citizens.
The armed conflict in the eastern area of the Democratic Republic of Congo (RDC) on the frontier with Rwanda seems to be growing worse and is impacting in a negative way the lives of people. The current fighting adds to the insecurity of the area and has virtually stopped cross-frontier activities largely done by women small traders. As a result, the price of existing food supplies has increased greatly, and shortages are to be feared.
The current armed conflict is among a Tutsi-led militia, the Mouvement du 23 Mars (M23), the forces of the RDC government and different ethnic militias. The President of the RDC, Felix Tshisekedi, sponsored the creation of local militias to help government soldiers, but the government does not control these militias. The United Nations (UN) Stabilization Mission in the Congo (MONUSCO) which has been in the RDC since 1999 is the largest UN peacekeeping force with some 15,000 members. However, it has been unable to halt the fighting or to protect civilians. In fact, the area of conflict has grown and engendered a catastrophic humanitarian crisis, causing the displacement of more than one million civilians in North Kivu Province. The M23 has recently launched attempts to win allies in South Kivu Province, in particular the armed group Twirwaneko, with the objective of opening a front in South Kivu.
The government of Rwanda has become increasingly involved in the Kivu conflict with direct intervention by the Rwanda Defense Force (RDF) and, despite a theoretical UN sponsored arms embargo, with weapons and other military equipment. The M23 is also fighting against the Forces démocratiques de Libération du Rwanda (FDLR) a Hutu-led group hostile to the government of Rwanda.
Recent attacks by M23 on populations associated with, or presumed to support the FDLR, have grown. Incidents of rape, including gang rape, by M23 combatants are prevalent but are not limited to the M23. The armed conflict is colored by a tense political situation with general elections, most significantly a presidential election, scheduled for December 2023.
The increased violence indicates the need for local non-governmental peacebuilding efforts which can be also facilitated by international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). There is also a greater need to build respect for International Humanitarian Law (IHL). When the framework of current IHL as drafted in the 1948 Geneva Conventions in light of the experiences of World War II, the focus was upon the actions of national armies. Today, much violence and strife is due to non-State actors and armed militias such as those in the RDC.
There are two major weaknesses in the effectiveness of IHL. (1) The first is that many people do not know that it exists and that they are bound by its norms. Thus, there is an important role for greater educational activities, the dissemination of information to the wider public, specific training of the military, outreach to armed militias, and cooperation with a wide range of NGOs.
The second weakness is that those violating IHL are rarely punished. Few soldiers are tried or court-martialed. This weakness is even more true for non-state militias and armed groups. There is yet much to do for the realization of the rule of law.
Note
1) For useful guides to International Humanitarian Law see:
D. Schindler and J. Toman, The Laws of Armed Conflict (Martinus Nihjoff Publishers, 1988)
H. McCoubrey and N.D. White, International Law and Armed Conflict (Dartmouth Publishing Co. 1992)
Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.
In our current globalized world society, there is an increased role for politics without borders. Politics no longer stops at the water’s edge but must play an active role on the world stage. However, unlike politics at the national level which usually has a parliament at which the actors can recite their lines, the world has no world parliament as such. Thus, new and inventive ways must be found so that world public opinion can be heard and acted upon.
The United Nations (UN) General Assembly is the closest thing to a world parliament that we have today. However, all the official participants are diplomats appointed by their respective States – 195 member states. UN Secretariat members, the secretariat members of UN Specialized Agencies such as UNESCO and the ILO, are in the hallways or coffee shops to give advice. Secretariat members of the financial institutions such as the World Bank and the IMF are also there to give advice on costs and the limits of available funds. The representatives of Nongovernmental Organizations (NGO) in Consultative Status with the UN who can speak at sessions of the Economic and Social Council and the Human Rights Council cannot address the General Assembly directly. However, they are also in the coffee shops and may send documents to the UN missions of national governments.
(C) Jérôme Blum
Politics without borders requires finding ways to express views for action beyond the borders of individual countries. Today, most vital issues that touch the lives of many people go beyond the individual State: the consequences of climate change, the protection of biodiversity, the resolution of armed conflicts, the violations of human rights, and a more just world trade pattern. Thus we need to find ways of looking at the world with a global mind and an open heart. This perspective is an aim of world citizenship.
However, World Citizens are not yet so organized as to be able to impact political decisions at the UN and in enough individual States so as to have real influence. The policy papers and Appeals of the Association of World Citizens (AWC) are often read with interest by the government representatives to whom they are sent. However, the AWC is an NGO among many and does not have the number of staff as such international NGOs as Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and Greenpeace.
The First Officer and External Relations Officer, Bernard J. Henry, and the Legal and Mediation Officer, Attorney Noura Addad, representing the AWC at an OECD roundtable in March 2019 (C) Bernard J. Henry/AWC
We still need to find effective ways so that humanity can come together to solve global problems, that is, politics without borders. Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.
Benjamin Ferencz, champion of World Law and World Citizenship, died on April 7, 2023 at the age of 103, leaving a strong heritage of action for world law. He was particularly active in the creation of the International Criminal Court (ICC) located in the Hague.
He was born in March 1920 in what is now Romania, close to the frontiers of Hungary and Ukraine. In the troubled period after the end of the First World War, the parents of Ferencz, who were Jews, decided to emigrate to New York with the help of the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society. They settled in New York City, and Ferencz changed his Yiddish name Berrel to Benjamin and studied in the New York school system. He did his undergraduate work at City College and then received a scholarship to Harvard Law School, a leading United States (U. S.) law school.
(C) United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
At the end of his law studies at Harvard, he was taken into the U. S. Army and in 1944, he was in Europe with the Army legal section, the Judge-Advocate General Corps. By conviction and interest, he began to collect information on the Nazi concentration camps. He was able to find photos, letters, and other material that he later was able to use as one of the prosecution team in the Nuremberg trials of Germans accused of war crimes. He was also a staff member of the Joint Restitution Successor Organization concerned with the restoration or compensation of goods having belonged to Jewish families. Thus, he developed close cooperation with the then recently created state of Israel.
(C) Leit
From his experiences with the German trials and the many difficulties that the trials posed to be more than the justice of the victors and also the need not to antagonize the recently created Federal Republic of Germany, Ferencz became a strong advocate of an international legal system such as the Tribunals on ex-Yugoslavia of 1993 and on Rwanda (1994). Much of his effort was directed to the creation of the ICC, a creation that owes much to efforts of nongovernmental organizations, such as the Association of World Citizens. It was during this effort for the creation of the ICC that we came into contact.
Benjamin Ferencz leaves a heritage on which we can build. The development of world law is often slow and meets opposition. However, the need is great, and strong efforts at both national and international levels continue.
(C) Adam Jones
(1) See Benjamin B. Ferencz, A Common Sense Guide to World Peace (Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications, 1985).
Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.
Pramila Patten, the United Nations (UN) Human Rights Council Special Rapporteur on sexual violence in times of conflict reported mid-October 2022 that rape is increasingly used in the armed conflict in Ukraine as a weapon to humiliate and discourage the populations. There had been an earlier September 27 report to the High Commissioner for Human Rights setting out many of the same facts and calling for international action.
In the past, sexual violence had often been dismissed as acts of individual soldiers, rape being one of the spoils of war for whom rape of women was an entitlement. However, with the 2001 trials of war crimes in former Yugoslavia by the International Criminal Tribunal for ex-Yugoslavia, the first convictions of rape as a crime against humanity and violations of the laws or customs of war were handed down against Bosnian Serb soldiers. Bosnian Serb fighters were charged with mass rape and forced prostitution involving dozens of Muslim women and girls, some only 12 years old. The case had taken five years of investigations and more than 30 witnesses for the prosecution. The three soldiers being tried were given a sentence of 12 years imprisonment.
Since then, we have seen patterns of systematic rape become part of International Humanitarian Law, and since 2002 one of the crimes that can be prosecuted within the International Criminal Court. (1)
There have been reports of systematic rape in Ukraine since 2014 with the creation of the People’s Republics of Donetsk and Luhansk by both Ukrainian and separatist soldiers. However, little international attention was given to these reports. It is only with the invasion of Ukraine by Russian troops on February 24, 2022 that international attention has focused on reports of rape especially in areas that were for a time under the control of the Russian military or the militias of the two People’s Republics. (2)
Unfortunately, it would seem that the armed conflict in Ukraine will drag on. There are few signs of a willingness for a negotiated settlement. International Humanitarian Law moves slowly. Rape as a war weapon is used in other armed conflicts such as those in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Darfur, Sudan, and Syria. Strong nongovernmental pressure is needed to keep governmental and UN efforts going on.
Notes
1) For a good overview of both specific armed conflicts and the slow but steady international response, see Carol Rittner and John K. Roth (Eds), Rape: Weapon of War and Genocide (St. Paul, MN: Paragon House, 2012)
2) See Amnesty International “Ukraine 2021”: http://www.amnesty.org, Secretary-General’s Report, Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, http://www.osce.org
Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.
The United Nations (UN) General Assembly has proclaimed June 19 of each year to be the International Day for the Elimination of Sexual Violence in Conflict in order to raise awareness of the need to put an end to conflict-related sexual violence and to honor the victims and the survivors of sexual violence around the world. The date was chosen to commemorate the adoption on June 19, 2008 of Security Council Resolution 1820 in which the Council condemned sexual violence as a tactic of war and as an impediment to peacebuilding.
For the UN, “conflict-related sexual violence” refers to rape, sexual slavery, forced prostitution, forced abortion, and any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity perpetrated against women, men, girls, and boys, linked to a conflict. The term also encompasses trafficking in persons when committed in situations of conflict for purposes of sexual violence or exploitation.
Dr. Nkosazuna Dlamini Zuma, Chairperson, African Union Commission speaking at the Global Summit to End Sexual Violence in Conflict, June 12, 2014. (C) Foreign and Commonwealth Office
There has been a slow growth of awareness-building trying to push UN Agencies to provide non-discriminatory and comprehensive health services including sexual and reproductive health services taking into account the special needs of persons with disabilities. A big step forward was the creation of the UN Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Sexual Violence in Conflict. The post is currently held since April 2017 by Under-Secretary-General Pramila Patten. She recently said “We see it too often in all corners of the globe from Ukraine to Tigray in northern Ethiopia to Syria and the Democratic Republic of Congo. Every new wave of warfare brings with it a rising tide of human tragedy including new waves of war’s oldest, most silenced and least-condemned crime.”
The Association of World Citizens (AWC) first raised the issue in the UN Commission on Human Rights in March 2001 citing the judgement of the International Court for Former Yugoslavia which maintained that there can be no time limitations on bringing the accused to trial. The tribunal also reinforced the possibility of universal jurisdiction that a person can be tried not only by his national court but by any court claiming universal jurisdiction and where the accused is present.
The AWC again stressed the use of rape as a weapon of war in the Special Session of the Commission on Human Rights on the Democratic Republic of Congo, citing the findings of Meredeth Turslen and Clotilde Twagiramariya in their book What Women Do in Wartime: Gender and Conflict in Africa (London: Zed Press, 1998), “There are numerous types of rape. Rape is committed to boast the soldiers’ morale, to feed soldiers’ hatred of the enemy, their sense of superiority, and to keep them fighting: rape is one kind of war booty; women are raped because war intensifies men’s sense of entitlement, superiority, avidity, and social license to rape: rape is a weapon of war used to spread political terror; rape can destabilize a society and break its resistance; rape is a form of torture; gang rapes in public terrorize and silence women because they keep the civilian population functioning and are essential to its social and physical continuity; rape is used in ethnic cleansing; it is designed to drive women from their homes or destroy their possibility of reproduction within or “for” their community; genocidal rape treats women as “reproductive vessels”; to make them bear babies of the rapists’ nationality, ethnicity, race or religion, and genocidal rape aggravates women’s terror and future stigma, producing a class of outcast mothers and children – this is rape committed with consciousness of how unacceptable a raped woman is to the patriarchal community and to herself. This list combines individual and group motives with obedience to military command; in doing so, it gives a political context to violence against women, and it is this political context that needs to be incorporated in the social response to rape.”
The prohibition of sexual violence in times of conflict is now part of international humanitarian law. However, there are two major weaknesses in the effectiveness of international humanitarian law. The first is that many people do not know that it exists and that they are bound by its norms. Thus, there is a role for greater promotional activities through education and training to create a climate conducive to the observance of internationally recognized norms. The second weakness is enforcement. We are still at the awareness-building stage. Strong awareness-building is needed.
Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.
April 24, 2022 saw renewed violence in the Darfur Province of Sudan between Arab militias and the indigenous tribes of the area, the Masalit and the Fur. The violence began in 2003 and has caused some 300,000 deaths and some three million displaced. While most of the fighting was when General Omar al-Bashir was President, his overthrow by new military leadership has not fundamentally improved the situation.
Darfur is the western edge of Sudan. Its longest foreign frontier is with Chad, but communication with Libya is easy for camel herders and gunrunners. To the south lies the Central African Republic – a state with a very unstable government, which feels the fallout from the Darfur conflict. Darfur served as a buffer area between the French colony of Chad and the English-held Sudan until 1916 when French-English rivalry was overshadowed by the common enemy, Germany, in World War I. Darfur, which had been loosely part of the Ottoman Empire, was integrated into Sudan with no consultation either with the people of Darfur or with those in Sudan.
(C) Albert González Farran – UNAMID
Thus, Darfur was always the neglected child in Sudan – a child no one had asked to be there. Only after 1945 were some development projects undertaken, but basically Darfur remained an area of pastoralists – some tribes specializing in camels and others in cattle – and settled agriculturalists. Camel and cattle-raising tribes from Chad would move into Darfur and vice-versa. There were frontiers between tribes, but they did not correspond to state boundaries.
In May 2000, intellectuals and government civil servants from Darfur, calling themselves the Seekers of Truth and Justice, wrote The Black Book: Imbalance of Power and Wealth in Sudan. The study ended with specific recommendations for governmental and social action. While the book was widely read, it produced no new initiatives in sharing power or wealth. Some leaders in Darfur had the impression that the government was withdrawing services, especially in health and education. Schools were closed, and the number of children in school decreased.
After the failure of the intellectual efforts of The Black Book, the conviction that only violence was taken seriously started to grow among Darfur leaders. They started thinking about a strategy of a sharp and swift show of violent strength that would force the government to negotiate with Darfur. The insurgency in Darfur began in the Spring of 2003. As Julie Flint and Alex de Waal point out in their useful history of the start of the Darfur war “Darfur’s rebels are an awkward coalition of Fur and Masalet villagers, Zaghawa Bedouins out of patience with Khartoum, a handful of professionals who dared to take on leadership. Few of Darfur’s guerrillas had military experience or discipline before they took up arms. The two main rebel groups are united by deep resentment at the marginalization of Darfur, but are not natural bedfellows and could easily be split apart… In the first months of 2003, these half-formed and inexperienced rebel fronts were catapulted out of obscurity to face challenges for which they were totally unprepared.” (1)
(C) Stuart Price/UN Photo
The government in Khartoum was also unprepared for the Darfur insurgency. The government’s attention, as well as the bulk of the army, was turned toward the civil war in the south of Sudan. The government turned the fight against the Darfur movements to its security agencies – a narrow group of men uninterested in internal politics or external relations. They decided to use the air force to bomb villages and to use foreign troops to do the fighting on the ground. The foreign troops came from Libya. Colonel Gaddafi had created in the early 1980s an “Islamic Legion” and recruited militiamen from Mauritania, Chad, Mali in his efforts to create a union of Libya and Chad – or to annex part of northern Chad. When Gaddafi’s Chadian interests faded at the end of the 1980s, the Islamic Legion soldiers were left to look after themselves and so were ready to work for new paymasters.
The Sudanese security people brought the Islamic Legion soldiers to Darfur, gave them weapons but no pay. They were to pay themselves by taking what they could from the villages they attacked. In addition, prisoners from Darfur’s jails were released on condition of joining the militias. Rape of women and young girls was widely practiced both as a means of terror and as a “reward” for the fighters since they were not paid. These militias became known as the Janjaweed (“the evildoers on horseback”).
Although the Darfur conflict has largely faded from the media headlines, it continues producing many refugees, internally displaced persons, unused farmland, and political unrest. The conflicts in Darfur have destroyed many of the older patterns of dispute settlement among groups as well as much of the economic infrastructure. The social texture and trust among groups is likely to be more difficult to rebuild than homes, livestock, and water wells.
The joint African Union – United Nations peacekeeping force has not been able to produce peace. Peacekeeping forces need a peace to keep, and while there have been lulls in fighting, there has been no peace to keep. Banditry, criminal activities, and periodic military action continues. It is impossible to know if the current outbreak of armed violence has local causes or if it is a reflection of instability at the central government level. The situation in Darfur remains critical and needs to be watched closely.
Note:
1) Julie Flint and Alex de Wall, Darfur: A Short History of a Long War (London, Zed Books, 2005)
Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.
The invasion by Russian troops into Ukraine has raised in a dramatic way the issue of the respect of international humanitarian law. There have been reports of the use of cluster munitions fired into civilian areas. The Association of World Citizens (AWC) was very active on efforts which led to the convention banning cluster weapons.
Regular military personnel of all countries are theoretically informed of the rules of the Geneva Conventions of August 12, 1949, and the Protocol Additional adopted in 1977.
When the 1949 Geneva Conventions were drafted and adopted, it was possible to spell out in considerable detail rules regarding prisoners of war and the protection of civilians, in particular Common Article 3 (so called because it is found in all four Conventions) provides that “each Party to the conflict shall be bound to apply, as a minimum, the following provisions: Persons taking no active part in the hostilities…shall in all circumstances be treated humanely without any adverse distinction founded on race, color, religion or faith, sex, birth or wealth, or any other similar criteria.”
The importance of Common Article 3 should not be underestimated. It sets out in straightforward terms important protections that all parties to a conflict must respect. In order to meet the need for additional protection, international humanitarian law has evolved to cover not only international armed conflict but also internal armed conflict. Today, international human rights standards are also considered part of international humanitarian law, thus providing additional protection for vulnerable population groups such as women, children, and minorities.
As situations of internal violence and strife proliferate, abuses committed by non-State actors, such as armed militias, are increasing concerns. Fundamental standards of international humanitarian law are intended to ensure the effective protection of human beings in all situations. The standards are clear. (1)
There are two major weaknesses in the effectiveness of international humanitarian law. The first is that many people do not know that it exists and that they are bound by its norms. Thus, there is an important role for greater promotional activities, the dissemination of information through general education, specific training of the military, outreach to armed militias, and cooperation with a wide range of nongovernmental organizations.
The second weakness is that violations of international humanitarian law are rarely punished. Governments too often tolerate these violations. Few soldiers are tried, or court-martialed, for the violations of international humanitarian law. This weakness is even more true of non-governmental militias and armed groups.
In fact, most violations of international humanitarian law are not actions of individual soldiers or militia members carried away by a sudden rush of anger, fear, a desire of revenge or a sudden sexual urge to rape a woman. Soldiers and militia members violating the norms of international humanitarian law are acting on orders of their commanders.
Thus, the only sold response is an act of conscience to refuse an order of a military or militia higher up and refuse to torture, to bomb a medical facility, to shoot a prisoner, to harm a child, and to rape a woman. Conscience, that inner voice which discerns what is right from wrong and encourages right action is the value on which we can build the defense of international humanitarian law. The defense of conscience to refuse unjust orders is a large task but a crucial action for moving toward a law-based world society.
Notes
(1) For useful guides to international humanitarian law see:
D. Schindler and J. Toman, The Laws of Armed Conflicts (Martinus Nihjoff Publishers, 1988)
H. McCoubrey and N.D. White, International Law and Armed Conflicts (Dartmouth Publishing Co., 1992)
Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.
Genocide is the most extreme consequence of racial discrimination and ethnic hatred. Genocide has as its aim the destruction, wholly or in part, of a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group as such. The term was proposed by the legal scholar Raphael Lemkin, drawing on the Greek genos (people or tribe) and the Latin –cide (to kill) (1). The policies and war crimes of the Nazi German government were foremost on the minds of those who drafted the Genocide Convention, but the policy was not limited to the Nazis (2).
The Genocide Convention is a landmark in the efforts to develop a system of universally accepted standards which promote an equitable world order for all members of the human family to live in dignity. Four articles are at the heart of this Convention and are here quoted in full to understand the process of implementation proposed by the Association of World Citizens (AWC), especially of the need for an improved early warning system.
Article I
In the present Convention, genocide means any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such:
(a) Killing members of the group; (b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; (c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; (d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; (e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.
Unlike most humanitarian international law which sets out standards but does not establish punishment, Article III sets out that the following acts shall be punishable:
(a) Genocide; (b) Conspiracy to commit genocide; (c) Direct and public incitement to commit genocide; (d) Attempt to commit genocide; (e) Complicity in genocide
Article IV
Persons committing genocide or any of the other acts enumerated in article III shall be punished, whether they are constitutionally responsible rulers, public officials or private individuals.
Article VIII
Any Contracting Party may call upon the competent organs of the United Nations to take such action under the Charter of the United Nations as they consider appropriate for the prevention and suppression of acts of genocide or any of the other acts enumerated in article III.
Numerous reports have reached the Secretariat of the United Nations (UN) of actual, or potential, situations of genocide: mass killings; cases of slavery and slavery-like practices, in many instances with a strong racial, ethnic, and religious connotation — with children as the main victims, in the sense of article II (b) and (c). Despite factual evidence of these genocides and mass killings as in Sudan, the former Yugoslavia, Rwanda, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Sierra Leone and in other places, no Contracting Party to the Genocide Convention has called for any action under article VIII of the Convention.
As Mr. Nicodème Ruhashyankiko of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities wrote in his study of proposed mechanisms for the study of information on genocide and genocidal practices “A number of allegations of genocide have been made since the adoption of the 1948 Convention. In the absence of a prompt investigation of these allegations by an impartial body, it has not been possible to determine whether they were well-founded. Either they have given rise to sterile controversy or, because of the political circumstances, nothing further has been heard about them.”
Raphael Lemkin
Yet the need for speedy preventive measures has been repeatedly underlined by UN Officials. On December 8, 1998, in his address at UNESCO, UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan said “Many thought, no doubt, that the horrors of the Second World War — the camps, the cruelty, the exterminations, the Holocaust — could not happen again. And yet they have, in Cambodia, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, In Rwanda. Our time — this decade even — has shown us that man’s capacity for evil knows no limits. Genocide — the destruction of an entire people on the basis of ethnic or national origins — is now a word of our time, too, a stark and haunting reminder of why our vigilance must be eternal.”
In her address Translating words into action to the UN General Assembly on December 10, 1998, the then High Commissioner for Human Rights, Ms. Mary Robinson, declared “The international community’s record in responding to, let alone preventing, gross human rights abuses does not give grounds for encouragement. Genocide is the most flagrant abuse of human rights imaginable. Genocide was vivid in the minds of those who framed the Universal Declaration, working as they did in the aftermath of the Second World War. The slogan then was ‘never again’. Yet genocide and mass killing have happened again — and have happened before the eyes of us all — in Rwanda, Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia and other parts of the globe.”
We need to heed the early warning signs of genocide. Officially directed massacres of civilians of whatever numbers cannot be tolerated, for the organizers of genocide must not believe that more widespread killing will be ignored. Yet killing is not the only warning sign. The Convention drafters, recalling the radio addresses of Hitler and the constant flow of words and images, set out as punishable acts “direct and public incitement to commit genocide”. The Genocide Convention, in its provisions concerning public incitement, sets the limits of political discourse. It is well documented that public incitement — whether by Governments or certain non-governmental actors, including political movements — to discriminate against, to separate forcibly, to deport or physically eliminate large categories of the population of a given State, or the population of a State in its entirety, just because they belong to certain racial, ethnic, or religious groups, sooner or later leads to war. It is also evident that, at the present time, in a globalized world, even local conflicts have a direct impact on international peace and security in general. Therefore, the Genocide Convention is also a constant reminder of the need to moderate political discourse, especially constant and repeated accusations against a religious, ethnic, and social category of persons. Had this been done in Rwanda, with regard to the Radio Mille Collines, perhaps that premeditated and announced genocide could have been avoided or mitigated.
For the UN to be effective in the prevention of genocide, there needs to be an authoritative body which can investigate and monitor a situation well in advance of the outbreak of violence. As has been noted, any Party to the Genocide Convention (and most States are Parties) can bring evidence to the UN Security Council, but none has. In the light of repeated failures and due to pressure from nongovernmental organizations, the Secretary-General has named an individual advisor on genocide to the UN Secretariat. However, he is one advisor among many, and there is no public access to the information that he may receive.
Therefore, a relevant existing body must be strengthened to be able to deal with the first signs of tensions, especially ‘direct and public incitement to commit genocide.” The Committee for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) created to monitor the 1965 International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination would be the appropriate body to strengthen, especially by increasing its resources and the number of UN Secretariat members which service the CERD. Through its urgent procedure mechanisms, CERD has the possibility of taking early-warning measures aimed at preventing existing strife from escalating into conflicts, and to respond to problems requiring immediate attention. A stronger CERD more able to investigate fully situations should mark the world’s commitment to the high standards of world law set out in the Genocide Convention.
Notes 1) Raphael Lemkin. Axis Rule in Occupied Europe (Washington: Carnegie Endowment for World Peace, 1944). 2) For a good overview, see: Samantha Power. A Problem from Hell: America and the Age of Genocide (New York: Basic Books, 2002) 3) E/CN.4/Sub.2/1778/416, Para 614
Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.