The Official Blog of the

Archive for the ‘Cultural Bridges’ Category

Politics Beyond National Frontiers

In Being a World Citizen, Conflict Resolution, Cultural Bridges, Democracy, Environmental protection, Human Development, Human Rights, Humanitarian Law, International Justice, Migration, Modern slavery, NGOs, Nonviolence, Refugees, Religious Freedom, Social Rights, Solidarity, Sustainable Development, The Search for Peace, Track II, United Nations, Women's Rights, World Law on May 24, 2023 at 6:38 AM

By René Wadlow

In our current globalized world society, there is an increased role for politics without borders. Politics no longer stops at the water’s edge but must play an active role on the world stage. However, unlike politics at the national level which usually has a parliament at which the actors can recite their lines, the world has no world parliament as such. Thus, new and inventive ways must be found so that world public opinion can be heard and acted upon.

The United Nations (UN) General Assembly is the closest thing to a world parliament that we have today. However, all the official participants are diplomats appointed by their respective States – 195 member states. UN Secretariat members, the secretariat members of UN Specialized Agencies such as UNESCO and the ILO, are in the hallways or coffee shops to give advice. Secretariat members of the financial institutions such as the World Bank and the IMF are also there to give advice on costs and the limits of available funds. The representatives of Nongovernmental Organizations (NGO) in Consultative Status with the UN who can speak at sessions of the Economic and Social Council and the Human Rights Council cannot address the General Assembly directly. However, they are also in the coffee shops and may send documents to the UN missions of national governments.

(C) Jérôme Blum

Politics without borders requires finding ways to express views for action beyond the borders of individual countries. Today, most vital issues that touch the lives of many people go beyond the individual State: the consequences of climate change, the protection of biodiversity, the resolution of armed conflicts, the violations of human rights, and a more just world trade pattern. Thus we need to find ways of looking at the world with a global mind and an open heart. This perspective is an aim of world citizenship.

However, World Citizens are not yet so organized as to be able to impact political decisions at the UN and in enough individual States so as to have real influence. The policy papers and Appeals of the Association of World Citizens (AWC) are often read with interest by the government representatives to whom they are sent. However, the AWC is an NGO among many and does not have the number of staff as such international NGOs as Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and Greenpeace.

The First Officer and External Relations Officer, Bernard J. Henry, and the Legal and Mediation Officer, Attorney Noura Addad, representing the AWC at an OECD roundtable in March 2019 (C) Bernard J. Henry/AWC

We still need to find effective ways so that humanity can come together to solve global problems, that is, politics without borders. Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.

Protecting Cultural Heritage in Time of War

In Arts, Being a World Citizen, Conflict Resolution, Cultural Bridges, Current Events, Europe, Humanitarian Law, NGOs, Solidarity, The Search for Peace, Track II, UKRAINE, United Nations, War Crimes, World Law on May 18, 2023 at 7:56 AM

By René Wadlow

War and armed violence are highly destructive of the lives of persons, but also of works of art and elements of cultural heritage. The war in Ukraine has highlighted the destructive power of war in a dramatic way. Thus, this May 18, “International Museum Day”, we outline some of the ways in which UNESCO is working to protect the cultural heritage in Ukraine in time of war.

May 18 has been designated by UNESCO as the International Day of Museums to highlight the role that museums play in preserving beauty, culture, and history. Museums come in all sizes and are often related to institutions of learning and libraries. Increasingly, churches and centers of worship have taken on the character of museums as people visit them for their artistic value, even they do not share the faith of those who built them.

Knowledge and understanding of a people’s past can help current inhabitants to develop and sustain identity and to appreciate the value of their own culture and heritage. This knowledge and understanding enriches their lives. It enables them to manage contemporary problems more successfully.

It is widely believed in Ukraine that one of the chief aims of the Russian armed intervention is to eliminate all traces of a separate Ukrainian culture, to highlight a common Russian motherland. In order to do this, there is a deliberate destruction of cultural heritage and a looting of museums, churches, and libraries in areas when under Russian military control. Museums, libraries, and churches elsewhere in Ukraine have been targeted by Russian artillery attacks.

After the Second World War, UNESCO had developed international conventions on the protection of cultural and educational bodies in times of conflict. The most important of these is the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict. The Hague Convention has been signed by a large number of States including the USSR to which both the Russian Federation and Ukraine are bound.

A Blue Shield in Vienna, Austria (C) Mosbatho, CC BY 4.0

UNESCO has designed a Blue Shield as a symbol of a protected site. Audrey Azoulay, Director-General of UNESCO, has brought a number of these Blue Shields herself to Ukraine to highlight UNESCO’s vital efforts.

The 1954 Hague Convention builds on the efforts of the Roerich Peace Pact signed on April 15, 1935 by 21 States in a Pan-American Union ceremony at the White House in Washington, D.C. In addition to the Latin American States of the Pan American Union, the following States also signed: Kingdom of Albania, Kingdom of Belgium, Republic of China, Republic of Czechoslovakia, Republic of Greece, Irish Free State, Empire of Japan, Republic of Lithuania, Kingdom of Persia, Republic of Poland, Republic of Portugal, Republic of Spain, Confederation of Switzerland, Kingdom of Yugoslavia.

At the signing, Henry A. Wallace, then U.S. Secretary of Agriculture and later Vice-President, said, “At no time has such an ideal been more needed. It is high time for the idealists who make the reality of tomorrow, to rally around such a symbol of international cultural unity. It is time that we appeal to that appreciation of beauty, science, education which runs across all national boundaries to strengthen all that we hold dear in our particular governments and customs. Its acceptance signifies the approach of a time when those who truly love their own nation will appreciate in addition the unique contributions of other nations and also do reverence to that common spiritual enterprise which draws together in one fellowship all artists, scientists, educators and truly religious of whatever faith. Thus we build a world civilization which places that which is fine in humanity above that which is low, sordid and mean, that which is hateful and grabbing.”

We still have efforts to make so that what is fine in humanity is above what is hateful and grabbing. However, the road signs set out the direction clearly.

Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.

Caresse Crosby: A World Citizen’s Passionate Years

In Being a World Citizen, Cultural Bridges, Europe, Literature, Poetry, The Search for Peace, United States on April 22, 2023 at 8:22 AM

By René Wadlow

Caresse Crosby (April 20, 1891 – January 24, 1970) was one of the more colorful figures of the early world citizens movement, heading the World Citizen Information Center in Washington, D. C. Her autobiography The Passionate Years was first published in 1953 and more recently republished by the Southern Illinois University Press in 1968. The Southern Illinois University Library holds her papers.

Most of The Passionate Years concerns Caresse Crosby’s life in Paris as the publisher of the Black Sun Press, at the center of the United States (U. S.) writers living in Paris in the 1920s – what has been called the Lost Generation – Ernest Hemingway, Ezra Pound, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Archibald MacLeish. She had moved to Paris in 1922 from Boston with her then husband, Harry Crosby. Harry Crosby was a nephew of J. P. Morgan, the banker. Harry had a short-term job at the Paris branch of the Morgan Bank, but he was not interested in banking and had a reasonable income from a trust fund. Thus, he started a small publishing house to publish in fine but limited editions books of his own poems and those of his friends. Harry Crosby was always preoccupied with the idea of death, having seen it closely as a medical worker in France during the last part of the First World War. Hence the name of Black Sun, a symbol of death overcoming the light of the Sun for the publishing house. On a trip back to New York in 1929 in what may have been a suicide pact, Harry Crosby first shot a woman friend and then himself with her in his arms. (1)

Caresse stayed on in Paris to continue the Black Sun publishing house, opening it also to French writers she liked such as Antoine de Saint-Exupéry. In 1936, seeing the clouds of tensions growing in Europe, she moved back to the USA, living in New York City and Washington, D. C. It was at this time that she began promoting the idea of world citizenship to counter the narrow nationalism she had seen firsthand in visits to Italy and Germany.

Right at the end of the Second World War, she wanted to create a Center for World Peace at Delphi, Greece – a place of inspiration from the Greek gods. However, the Greek Government still weak from the German occupation and the anti-Communist civil war did not want such a center with an ideology that it did not understand. The Greek Government refused the visas. Caresse then moved the idea to Cyprus and created the World Man Center with a geodesic dome designed by Buckminster Fuller, who had become her lover at the time. Cyprus, then under British control, was somewhat out of the way for the sort of visiting writers, painters, and intellectuals that Caresse usually attracted. Thus, she bought a castle north of Rome, the Castello di Rocca Sinibalda, and established an artists’ colony for young artists. She divided her time between this Rome area and her New York and Washington quarters.

For Caresse Crosby, World Citizenship was an aesthetic rather than a political concept, but she did plant seeds in the minds of people largely untouched by geopolitical considerations.

Caresse Crosby and her whippet, Clytoris (1922, author unknown)

1) See Geoffrey Wolff, Black Sun: The Brief Transit and Violent Eclipse of Harry Crosby (New York: New York Review of Books, 2003).

Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.

UN Human Rights Rapporteurs Concerned by Rape, Forced Conversion and Marriage to Rapists in Pakistan

In Asia, Cultural Bridges, Current Events, Human Rights, NGOs, Solidarity, Spirituality, Track II, United Nations, World Law on January 21, 2023 at 8:41 PM

By René Wadlow

The Human Rights Council, building on the earlier practice of the United Nations (UN) Commission on Human Rights, has a number of Special Rapporteurs devoted to certain themes – usually specific violations of human rights – or to specific countries. These Special Rapporteurs are independent experts selected by the Council. They usually report their findings at each session of the Council. When violations concern more than one issue, there can be joint Reports to the Council or joint Appeals to a government. Such a collective Appeal to the government of Pakistan sent on October 26, 2022 was made public on January 15, 2023.

The joint Appeal by six Special Rapporteurs concerned the sequence of rape of young women, forced conversion to Islam, followed by marriage to the rapist. The Appeal was led by the Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief, the Special Rapporteur on Sexual Exploitation of Children, the Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women and Girls, and the Special Rapporteur on Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children. The subject of the Appeal is not new, having been raised previously by Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs), including by the Association of World Citizens (AWC).

However, the Appeal by the Special Rapporteurs clearly identifies a systemic problem on which the Pakistani government has failed to act. The girls raped are usually minors under 18 years of age and belong to Hindu and Christian minorities of the country, often rural and poor. Most Christians in Pakistan are converts from low caste or “untouchables” (Dalit) Hindus. Seeing no future within the Hindu-influenced caste system, they converted to Christianity which has no caste structure. Most of the Pakistani Hindus and Christians are illiterate and have little or no political influence.

A peace tour arranged by different social activists and minority rights activists in Lahore, Pakistan, with the participation of Muslim, Christian and Hindu youth. (C) RedMiNote

The Pakistani police and the court employees are agents of these human rights violations. Illiterate parents sign with a thumbprint document that they do not understand and are then filled in by the police to attest that the girl is older than 18, the legal age for marriage. If the girl or her family agrees to the marriage with the rapist, the rapist cannot be arrested and tried for the rape. As the practice takes place usually in rural areas, there are few if any NGOs to take up the specific cases. Urbanized Christian groups in Pakistan have made some protests of the practice but are often unaware of the specific rural cases.

NGOs have brought evidence of the practice to the attention of the Geneva-based Special Rapporteurs. When a human rights violation is given to the UN human rights secretariat, it is sent on to the Geneva-based Ambassador of the country mentioned. The Ambassador may not reply at all or more usually will reply saying that the facts are incorrect or deliberately misleading. However, as in the Pakistani case, the evidence piles up. In this current situation, there is, two months ago, a newly appointed High Commissioner for Human Rights, Volker Turk, formerly UN Undersecretary-General for Policy. The Special Rapporteurs may have wanted to see how he will act on violations of a powerful country. The situation in Pakistan merits close watching.

Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.

Women as Peacemakers

In Being a World Citizen, Conflict Resolution, Cultural Bridges, Human Rights, NGOs, Nonviolence, Solidarity, The Search for Peace, Track II, United Nations, Women's Rights, World Law on November 1, 2022 at 6:10 PM

By René Wadlow

Seeing with eyes that are gender aware, women tend to make connections between the oppression that is the ostensible cause of conflict (ethnic or national oppression) in the light of another cross-cutting one: that of gender regime. Feminist work tends to represent war as a continuum of violence from the bedroom to the battlefield, traversing our bodies and our sense of self. We glimpse this more readily because as women we have seen that ‘the home’ itself is not the haven it is cracked up to be. Why, if it is a refuge, do so many women have to escape it to “refuges”? And we recognize, with Virginia Woolf, that ‘the public and private worlds are inseparably connected: that the tyrannies and servilities of one are the tyrannies and servilities of the other.

Cynthia Cockburn, Negotiating Gender and National Identities

October 31 is the anniversary of the United Nations (UN) Security Council Resolution 1325 which calls for full and equal participation of women in conflict prevention, peace processes, and peacebuilding, thus creating opportunities for women to become fully involved in governance and leadership. This historic Security Council resolution 1325 of October 31, 2000 provides a mandate to incorporate gender perspectives in all areas of peace support. Its adoption is part of a process within the UN system through its World Conferences on Women in Mexico City (1975), in Copenhagen (1980), in Nairobi (1985), in Beijing (1995), and at a special session of the UN General Assembly to study progress five years after Beijing (2000).

Since 2000, there have been no radical changes as a result of Resolution 1325, but the goal has been articulated and accepted. Now women must learn to take hold of and generate political power if they are to gain an equal role in peace-making. They must be willing to try new avenues and new approaches as symbolized by the actions of Lysistrata.

Lysistrata, immortalized by Aristophanes, mobilized women on both sides of the Athenian-Spartan War for a sexual strike in order to force men to end hostilities and avert mutual annihilation. In this, Lysistrata and her co-strikers were forerunners of the American humanistic psychologist Abraham Maslow who proposed a hierarchy of needs: water, food, shelter, and sexual relations being the foundation (see Abraham Maslow, The Farther Reaches of Human Nature). Maslow is important for conflict resolution work because he stresses dealing directly with identifiable needs in ways that are clearly understood by all parties and with which they are willing to deal at the same time.

Addressing each person’s underlying needs means that one moves toward solutions that acknowledge and value those needs rather than denying them. To probe below the surface requires redirecting the energy towards asking “What are your real needs here? What interests need to be serviced in this situation?” The answers to such questions significantly alter the agenda and provide a real point of entry into the negotiation process.

It is always difficult to find a point of entry into a conflict. An entry point is a subject on which people are willing to discuss because they sense the importance of the subject and all sides feel that “the time is ripe” to deal with the issue. The art of conflict resolution is highly dependent on the ability to get to the right depth of understanding and intervention into the conflict. All conflicts have many layers. If one starts off too deeply, one can get bogged down in philosophical discussions about the meaning of life. However, one can also get thrown off track by focusing on too superficial an issue on which there is relatively quick agreement. When such relatively quick agreement is followed by blockage on more essential questions, there can be a feeling of betrayal.

Since Lysistrata, women, individually and in groups, have played a critical role in the struggle for justice and peace in all societies. However, when real negotiations begin, women are often relegated to the sidelines. However, a gender perspective on peace, disarmament, and conflict resolution entails a conscious and open process of examining how women and men participate in and are affected by conflict differently. It requires ensuring that the perspectives, experiences and needs of both women and men are addressed and met in peace-building activities. Today, conflicts reach everywhere. How do these conflicts affect people in the society — women and men, girls and boys, the elderly and the young, the rich and poor, the urban and the rural?

There has been a growing awareness that women and children are not just victims of violent conflict and wars −’collateral damage’ − but they are chosen targets. Conflicts such as those in Rwanda, the former Yugoslavia and the Democratic Republic of Congo have served to bring the issue of rape and other sexual atrocities as deliberate tools of war to the forefront of international attention. Such violations must be properly documented, the perpetrators brought to justice, and victims provided with criminal and civil redress.

I would stress three elements which seem to me to be the ‘gender’ contribution to conflict transformation efforts:

1) The first is in the domain of analysis, the contribution of the knowledge of gender relations as indicators of power. Uncovering gender differences in a given society will lead to an understanding of power relations in general in that society, and to the illumination of contradictions and injustices inherent in those relations.

2) The second contribution is to make us more fully aware of the role of women in specific conflict situations. Women should not only be seen as victims of war: they are often significantly involved in taking initiatives to promote peace. Some writers have stressed that there is an essential link between women, motherhood and non-violence, arguing that those engaged in mothering work have distinct motives for rejecting war which run in tandem with their ability to resolve conflicts non-violently. Others reject this position of a gender bias toward peace and stress rather that the same continuum of non-violence to violence is found among women as among men. In practice, it is never all women nor all men who are involved in peace-making efforts. Sometimes, it is only a few, especially at the start of peace-making efforts. The basic question is how best to use the talents, energies, and networks of both women and men for efforts at conflict resolution.

3) The third contribution of a gender approach with its emphasis on the social construction of roles is to draw our attention to a detailed analysis of the socialization process in a given society. Transforming gender relations requires an understanding of the socialization process of boys and girls, of the constraints and motivations which create gender relations. Thus, there is a need to look at patterns of socialization, potential incitements to violence in childhood training patterns, and socially-approved ways of dealing with violence.

The Association of World Citizens has stressed that it is important to have women directly involved in peace-making processes. The strategies women have adapted to get to the negotiating table are testimony to their ingenuity, patience, and determination. Solidarity and organization are crucial elements. The path may yet be long, but the direction is set.

Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.

Nonviolent Action: The Force of the Soul

In Africa, Anticolonialism, Asia, Being a World Citizen, Cultural Bridges, Nonviolence, Solidarity, Spirituality, The Search for Peace, United Nations on October 2, 2022 at 5:00 PM

By René Wadlow

October 2 is the United Nations (UN) General Assembly-designated Day of Nonviolence chosen as October 2 is the birth anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi.

Mahatma Gandhi, shortly after finishing his legal studies in England, went to South Africa and began working with Indian laborers, victims of discrimination. He looked for a term understandable to a largely English-speaking population to explain his efforts. “Passive resistance” was the most widely used term and had been used by Leo Tolstoy and others. However, Gandhi found the word “passive” misleading. There did exist a Hindu term, ahinsaa meaning non- and hinsa, violence. The term was basically unknown among White South Africans, largely uninterested in Indian philosophical thought.

Gandhi wrote to a friend from his legal studies days in England, Edward Maitland. Maitland and Anna Kingsford were the leaders of the Esoteric Christian Union and the leaders of the London Lodge of the Theosophical Society. Maitland introduced Gandhi to the writings of the American New Thought writer Ralph Waldo Trine. Trine was a New Englander and his parents named him after Emerson. His best-known work from which Gandhi took the term for his actions in South Africa is In Tune with the Infinite or Fullness of Peace Power and Plenty. (1)

Trine uses the term “soul force” which Gandhi then used for his work in South Africa. Once back in India, Gandhi wanted an Indian rather than an English expression, and he coined the term satyagraha − holding on to truth: satya as Truth in a cosmic sense is an oft-used Hindu term while “soul” would need some explaining to Indian followers.

All of Trine’s writings contained the same message: soul force could be acquired by making oneself one with God, who was immanent, through love and service to one’s fellow men. The Christ Trine followed was one familiar to Gandhi − the supreme spiritual exemplar who showed men the way to union with their divine essence. Trine promised that the true seeker, fearless and forgetful of self-interest, will be so filled with the power of God working through him that “as he goes here and there, he can continually send out influences of the most potent and powerful nature that will reach the uttermost parts of the world.”

For Trine, thought was the way that a person came into tune with the Infinite. “Each is building his own world. We both build from within, and we attract from without. Thought is the force with which we build, for thoughts are forces. Like builds like and like attracts like. In the degree that thought is spiritualized does it become more subtle and powerful in its workings. This spiritualizing is in accordance with law and is within the power of all.

“Everything is first worked out in the unseen before it is manifested in the seen, in the ideal before it is realized in the real, in the spiritual before it shows forth in the material. The realm of the unseen is the realm of cause. The realm of the seen is the realm of effect. The nature of effect is always determined and conditioned by the nature of its cause.”

Thus, for Mahatma Gandhi, before a nonviolent action or campaign, there was a long period of spiritual preparation of both him and his close co-workers. Prayer, fasting, and meditation were used in order to focus the force of the soul, to visualize a positive outcome and to develop harmlessness to those opposed.

Another theme which Trine stressed and Gandhi constantly used in his efforts to build bridges between Hindus and Muslims was that there was a basic core common to all religions. Gandhi wrote “There is a golden thread that runs through every religion in the world. There is a golden thread that runs through the lives and the teachings of all the prophets, seers, sages, and saviors in the world’s history, through the lives of all men and women of truly great and lasting power. The great central fact of the universe is that the spirit of infinite life and power is back of all, manifests itself in and through all. This spirit of infinite life and power that is back of all is what I call God. I care not what term you may use, be it Kindly Light, Providence, the Over-Soul, Omnipotence or whatever term may be most convenient, so long as we are agreed in regard to the great central fact itself.”

Note:

(1) R.W. Trine, In Tune with the Infinite (New York: Whitecombe and Tombs, 1899, 175 pp.)

Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.

1989, l’affaire Salman Rushdie : Quand la France célébrait sa Révolution sous les feux croisés de l’obscurantisme

In Africa, Being a World Citizen, Cultural Bridges, Current Events, Democracy, Europe, Human Rights, Literature, Middle East & North Africa, NGOs, Solidarity, Spirituality, The Search for Peace, United Nations on August 15, 2022 at 1:02 PM

Par Bernard J. Henry

Après les Etats-Unis en 1976, les Français ont célébré en 1989 le Bicentenaire de la Révolution qui a créé leur république, avec pour traits d’union entre les deux pays le Marquis de la Fayette, «héros des deux mondes» en France comme le deviendrait plus tard Giuseppe Garibaldi en Italie, et le fameux «Ça ira» de Benjamin Franklin, Ministre des Etats-Unis d’Amérique à Paris mais francophone malhabile qui, lorsqu’on lui demandait des nouvelles de son pays, répondait par ces deux seuls mots que les sans-culottes avaient fini par reprendre à leur profit. Mais en France, l’année 1989 fut loin d’être placée sous le seul signe des idéaux de la Révolution française tels que résumés en sa devise officielle – Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité.

Depuis le début des années 1980, la France était régulièrement frappée par le terrorisme lié au conflit israélo-palestinien, comme lorsque fut frappé voici quarante ans ce mois-ci, le 9 août 1982, le restaurant Jo Goldenberg dans le quartier juif de Paris. Depuis les élections municipales de 1983 et dans des proportions sans précédent depuis la Libération, l’extrême droite reprenait pied dans la politique française avec les succès électoraux du Front National, dénoncés ainsi que la complaisance du reste de la classe politique par Louis Chedid dans Anne, ma sœur Anne.

C’était déjà beaucoup, évidemment trop. Mais ce n’était pourtant qu’un début, et bientôt une France déjà en proie à ses propres démons allait se trouver prise au cœur de luttes d’envergure mondiale, luttes qui, bien que jamais vraiment disparues, viennent aujourd’hui se rappeler tragiquement au souvenir non seulement de la France mais du monde entier, avec l’agression de Salman Rushdie le 12 août dans l’État de New York.

La Dernière Tentation du Christ : la Contre-Révolution contre-attaque

Le réalisateur américain Martin Scorsese (C) David Shankbone

En août 1988, le cinéaste américain Martin Scorsese sort son nouveau film, La Dernière Tentation du Christ, d’après un roman de Níkos Kazantzákis. En rupture directe avec les récits bibliques, Scorsese y dépeint un Jésus vivant comme tout mortel, peu soucieux du péché ou de la foi, et qui prend soudainement conscience de sa mission divine puis entame un parcours messianique en s’opposant aux dirigeants mêmes du peuple juif dont il est issu. Devant les caméras de Scorsese, c’est Jésus lui-même qui demande à Judas, son premier adepte, de le dénoncer aux Romains afin d’être arrêté et mourir en martyr. Mais, alors qu’il attend la mort sur sa croix, Jésus se voit offrir le salut par un ange qui vient lui dire qu’il est Fils de Dieu, mais non pas le Messie, et doit vivre en homme normal. Sauvé par l’ange de la crucifixion, Jésus épouse Marie-Madeleine et fonde avec elle une famille heureuse.

A la fin de sa vie, Jésus appelle auprès de lui ses anciens disciples et Judas lui avoue que l’ange qui l’a sauvé était en réalité Satan, dont lui est venue cette «dernière tentation» de vivre en homme ordinaire et non en Messie. Mourant, Jésus rampe jusqu’à la croix dont Satan l’avait jadis extrait, dans une Jérusalem en flammes puisque n’ayant jamais été pacifiée par son enseignement. Il implore Dieu de le replacer sur la croix, afin de pouvoir enfin accomplir sa destinée. Crucifié une nouvelle fois, il sait sa mission menée à bien et meurt.

Cette uchronie religieuse soulève la fureur chez les Chrétiens à travers le monde entier, d’abord chez les Protestants aux Etats-Unis même puis, en France, chez les Catholiques, l’Archevêque de Paris Jean-Marie Lustiger parvenant même à faire plier le Gouvernement socialiste de François Mitterrand qui, d’abord partenaire du film, finit par jeter l’éponge.

A sa sortie en France en septembre, le film réveille un mouvement catholique intégriste que l’on croyait décapité depuis l’excommunication au printemps de Monseigneur Marcel Lefebvre et la mise au ban par le Vatican de sa Fraternité sacerdotale Saint-Pie-X traditionaliste et hostile à Vatican II. En octobre, un cinéma projetant La Dernière Tentation du Christ est incendié dans l’est de la France et, à Metz, la visite du Pape Jean-Paul II donne lieu au retrait du film des salles locales. Bientôt, le film est déprogrammé partout ailleurs ou projeté sous protection policière. Le 23 octobre, un commando catholique intégriste attaque l’Espace Saint-Michel à Paris, dernière salle projetant encore le film, blessant quatorze personnes dont deux grièvement.

En pleine célébration de sa Révolution et de l’Être suprême, divinité laïque sous les auspices de laquelle était adoptée le 26 août 1789 la Déclaration des Droits de l’Homme et du Citoyen, la France découvre que l’esprit vengeur des Chouans de Bretagne et des royalistes de Vendée qui refusaient la fin de la monarchie de droit divin était toujours là, et que, comme leurs ancêtres révolutionnaires, les Français républicains de 1989 allaient devoir y faire face. Et à l’intégrisme catholique menaçant le Bicentenaire allait bientôt s’ajouter l’intégrisme issu des rangs d’une autre religion majeure de France – l’Islam.

Allah et Les Versets sataniques : les «intégristes musulmans» à l’assaut de l’Être suprême

En 1989, la France ne parle pas encore d’islamisme. Ce terme n’apparaît que l’année suivante, lorsque les premières élections libres et multipartites en Algérie voient non pas la victoire courue d’avance du Front de Libération Nationale (FLN), jusqu’alors parti unique, mais du Front islamique du Salut (FIS), parti prônant une application stricte de la loi coranique dans tous les domaines de l’administration et de la vie publique. Pour l’instant, en cette année 1989, la France parle d’intégrisme musulman. Jusqu’à présent, cet intégrisme s’est surtout manifesté à travers le terrorisme, non dans une moindre mesure en lien avec l’Iran comme en témoigne l’affaire Wahid Gordji. Mais la France est sur le point de découvrir que cet intégrisme peut aussi frapper là où elle l’attend le moins, sur un terrain où, ceinte de ses idéaux révolutionnaires, elle se croit inexpugnable. Le terrain de la culture.

Dès 1987, la chanteuse Véronique Sanson envisageait une chanson contre l’intégrisme religieux, racontant l’histoire d’un couple maghrébin se muant en auteurs d’un attentat-suicide par l’explosion d’un camion. Alors qu’elle entend intituler sa chanson Dieu, le chanteur Michel Berger, son ancien compagnon qui produit pour elle l’album devant contenir la chanson, lui suggère de l’intituler Allah en référence à l’extrémisme musulman qui, à travers le monde, s’affirme alors de plus en plus comme une «troisième force» entre les Etats-Unis de Ronald Reagan et l’URSS de Mikhaïl Gorbatchev. C’est ainsi que la chanteuse enregistre Allah, où elle s’en prend directement au Dieu de l’Islam pour les attentats commis en son nom par des fanatiques.

Véronique Sanson

Alors qu’elle s’apprête à donner un concert à l’Olympia, Véronique Sanson reçoit des menaces de mort lui enjoignant de ne pas chanter Allah. Le 14 février 1989, une fatwa est lancée contre elle avec ordre de la tuer. La carrière de la chanson s’arrête là. Mais pas celle de l’extrémisme se réclamant de l’Islam, car bien sûr, Rushdie est le prochain sur la liste.

C’est en septembre 1988 que l’écrivain britannique d’origine indienne, naturalisé américain, publie son quatrième roman, Les Versets sataniques (The Satanic Verses). Les protagonistes, deux artistes indiens vivant en Angleterre contemporaine, se trouvent pris dans un détournement d’avion et, alors que l’appareil explose en plein vol, se voient miraculeusement y survivre puis prendre pour l’un, la personnalité de l’Ange Gabriel et, pour l’autre, celle d’un démon. Ce dernier réussit à ruiner la vie, notamment sentimentale, de son comparse qui le lui pardonne toutefois en bon ange que, selon lui, il est devenu. Tous deux rentrés en Inde, le premier tue sa compagne avant de se suicider, et le second, jusqu’alors brouillé avec son identité indienne ainsi que son propre père, se réconcilie avec les deux et reste vivre dans son Inde natale.

Salman Rushdie

Mais derrière cette histoire de deux Indiens frappés d’une maladie mentale, servant de trame au roman de Rushdie, d’autres parties du roman s’avèrent plus problématiques, du moins pour les Musulmans les plus dogmatiques.

A l’instar de Scorsese mettant en scène un Christ détourné de sa mission salvatrice par un Satan habilement déguisé, Rushdie dépeint Mahomet, le Prophète de l’Islam, adoptant trois divinités païennes de La Mecque en violation du principe islamique du dieu unique, les trois divinités ayant dicté à Mahomet de faux versets du Coran en ayant pris l’apparence d’Allah. Le récit romancé de Rushdie amène ensuite des prostituées de La Mecque à se faire passer pour les épouses du Prophète, puis l’un des compagnons de Mahomet à douter de lui en tant que messager de Dieu et l’accuser d’avoir volontairement réécrit certaines parties du Coran en occultant le verbe divin.

Rushdie poursuit avec le récit, toujours fictif, d’une jeune paysanne indienne affirmant recevoir des révélations de l’Archange Jibreel («Gabriel» en arabe). Elle convainc son village entier d’entreprendre un pèlerinage en marchant jusqu’à La Mecque, affirmant qu’ils pourront tous traverser la mer à pied. Mais les pèlerins disparaissent tous, les témoignages discordant sur leur noyade pure et simple ou leur traversée miraculeuse de la mer comme l’aurait promis l’Archange Jibreel.

Puis Rushdie présente un chef religieux fanatique expatrié, «l’Imam», chef religieux en lequel est aisément reconnaissable l’Imam Ruhollah Khomeini, Guide suprême de la République islamique d’Iran, exilé en France jusqu’à la révolution islamique de 1979.

Après le tollé chez les Chrétiens contre Scorsese, c’est au tour de Rushdie d’enflammer le monde musulman. Au Pakistan, Les Versets sataniques sont interdits et, le 12 février 1989, dix mille personnes manifestent contre lui à Islamabad où le Centre culturel américain et un bureau d’American Express sont mis à sac. L’Inde interdit l’importation de l’ouvrage et des autodafés se font jour en Grande-Bretagne.

En février 1989, c’est au tour de Khomeini d’ajouter à la polémique en édictant une fatwa, littéralement une «opinion juridique», facultative en Islam sunnite mais ayant valeur contraignante chez les Chiites, appelant au meurtre de Rushdie et de ses éditeurs ainsi qu’à faciliter ce meurtre à défaut de le commettre soi-même. En Grande-Bretagne, le Gouvernement conservateur de Margaret Thatcher prend fait et cause pour Rushdie, qu’il place sous protection policière, mais un jeune député travailliste nouvellement élu organise dans sa circonscription une marche pour l’interdiction des Versets sataniques et un ancien leader du Parti conservateur, Norman Tebbit, sans aucun lien personnel avec l’Inde ou l’Islam par ailleurs, condamne et injurie publiquement Rushdie.

Là où Martin Scorsese continue d’aller et venir librement, Véronique Sanson ayant tôt fait de sortir de nouveaux titres et faire oublier Allah, Rushdie se trouve désormais prisonnier d’une alternative qui résume tout son sort – la clandestinité ou la mort.

Héritage humaniste contre héritage de haine

Devenu invisible et introuvable, Rushdie publie en 1995 un nouveau roman, Le dernier soupir du Maure (The Moor’s Last Sigh). Mais, pour avoir perdu en intensité, la menace de Téhéran n’en a pas pour autant disparu. Loin des regards, c’est désormais par procuration que Rushdie continue d’être attaqué.

En 1991, les traducteurs italien et japonais de Rushdie sont assassinés. Deux ans plus tard, un traducteur norvégien des Versets sataniques échappe de peu à une tentative de meurtre par balles puis un traducteur turc manque de succomber à un incendie volontaire qui le visait.

En 1998, l’Iran de Mohammed Khatami, Président se voulant réformiste, annonce la fin de la fatwa contre Rushdie qui, à son tour, abandonne sa vie en clandestinité. Mais en 2006, le conservateur nationaliste Mahmoud Ahmadinejad qui a succédé à Khatami fait marche arrière ; pour lui, une fatwa ne peut être annulée que par la personne qui l’a édictée, et puisque Khomeini est décédé, la fatwa est irréversible. Dix ans plus tard, la prime promise par l’Iran pour le meurtre de Rushdie dépasse les trois millions de dollars, notamment sous l’impulsion des médias iraniens.

Et le 12 août dernier, alors qu’il s’apprête à donner une conférence à la Chautauqua Institution dans l’Etat de New York, Rushdie est poignardé au cou par Hadi Matar, Chiite d’origine libanaise dont les réseaux sociaux grouillent de messages de soutien au régime iranien et d’admiration pour Khomeini. Hospitalisé en urgence, placé sous assistance respiratoire, il est menacé de perdre un œil ; le 14, son agent annonce qu’il se rétablit et respire normalement. En Iran, la presse conservatrice couvre de louanges Hadi Matar qui, ensuite amené devant la justice, plaide non coupable.

En France, d’aucuns convoquent aussitôt le souvenir de l’attentat terroriste du 7 janvier 2015 contre la rédaction de Charlie Hebdo, régulièrement accusé de s’en prendre systématiquement à l’Islam et aux Musulmans, en particulier depuis la publication dans ses colonnes, en 2006, de caricatures de Mahomet parues dans un journal d’extrême droite au Danemark. C’est toutefois après avoir critiqué non l’Islam mais l’islamisme, incarné par le parti tunisien Ennahda et une partie du Conseil national de Transition en Libye, que Charlie Hebdo avait connu en 2011 l’incendie de ses locaux à Paris. Quant à l’attentat ayant décimé sa rédaction, Charlie Hebdo le devait bien à deux terroristes résolus, deux frères membres d’Al-Qaïda en Péninsule Arabique, Cherif et Saïd Kouachi. L’Islam ne tue pas, l’islamisme oui.

Pour les Français, immanquablement, le souvenir de l’attentat contre Charlie Hebdo en appelle un autre, celui de l’assassinat de Samuel Paty, professeur d’histoire-géographie victime d’un autre attentat terroriste à Conflans-Sainte-Honorine, en région parisienne, le 16 octobre 2020 alors que se tenait justement à Paris le procès des auteurs présumés des attentats de janvier 2015 dont celui contre Charlie Hebdo, en dehors des frères Kouachi et d’Amedy Coulibaly qui avait attaqué l’Hyper Cacher de la Porte de Vincennes. Samuel Paty avait été dénoncé par certains élèves musulmans comme ayant utilisé des dessins parodiques de Mahomet parus dans Charlie Hebdo, ce qui avait fait de lui une cible du seul fait de son enseignement, non contre l’Islam mais en faveur de l’esprit critique.

Étrangère à l’univers anglo-saxon de l’Amérique de Scorsese ou de l’Angleterre de Rushdie, la France qui célébrait sa Révolution s’était retrouvée victime collatérale des deux épisodes mais n’en avait pas connu de semblable pour ses propres artistes, notamment pas pour Véronique Sanson contre laquelle la fatwa aura fait long feu. Inspirée par le Bicentenaire de la Révolution, Isabelle Adjani, l’une des actrices françaises les plus en vogue à l’époque, n’en avait pas moins lu à haute voix un extrait des Versets sataniques lors de la cérémonie des Césars en 1988. Malgré tout, la France républicaine avait bien dû se faire une raison, constatant que les idéaux qu’elle célébrait et voulait universels ne l’étaient pas tant qu’elle le croyait et que, dans cet Occident qui regardait de haut un «Tiers Monde» auquel il imputait l’intégrisme religieux comme une conséquence de son sous-développement, ce même intégrisme existait aussi, non du seul fait de migrants musulmans mais aussi de citoyens de lignée locale depuis des siècles, non du seul fait d’un Islam qui, ailleurs, avait pris les armes mais aussi du même catholicisme qui, le dimanche matin, rassemblait les fidèles devant Le Jour du Seigneur sur la télévision d’État.

Triste préfiguration d’un monde qui, en quittant les années 1980 et par miracle la Guerre Froide, (r)entrait successivement dans la guerre «chaude» avec la campagne militaire internationale pour la libération du Koweït envahi en août 1990 par l’Irak, les guerres balkaniques avec camps d’internement et purification ethnique rappelant sombrement la Shoah, le terrorisme généralisé, ici islamique du fait d’Al-Qaïda et ailleurs d’extrême droite comme à Oklahoma City, et l’extrême droite au pouvoir, fût-ce en coalition gouvernementale, comme en Italie.

D’aucuns en France voudraient penser que tous les chemins mènent non à Rome, mais à Paris, et donc que tous les chemins en partent aussi. En 1789, la Déclaration des Droits de l’Homme et du Citoyen avait bel et bien résonné, pour sa part, loin par-delà les frontières du Royaume de France. Là où les textes constitutionnels américains avaient été scrutés principalement par les ennemis britannique et espagnol de la jeune Amérique indépendante, la proclamation française «en présence de l’Être suprême» avait permis au monde entier de comprendre qu’une nouvelle ère commençait. Deux cents ans plus tard, la fête de ce légitime moment de fierté pour le peuple français lui offrait tout le contraire, l’obscurantisme et la violence venues d’ailleurs convergeant vers Paris pour ternir ce moment de joie et ouvrir la voie à une fin du vingtième siècle qui ne pouvait que laisser craindre le pire.

La Déclaration universelle des Droits de l’Homme et du Citoyen adoptée le 26 août 1789 (C) Musée Carnavalet – Paris

Aucun respect du droit sans respect de l’écrit

Et le vingt-et-unième siècle n’a pas manqué de tenir les terribles promesses de son prédécesseur. Pire attentat terroriste de l’histoire en 2001, extrême droite au pouvoir dans deux pays d’Europe et ayant manqué de l’être aussi en France en 2002, invasion de l’Irak cette fois sans mandat international en 2003, tortures de civils dans ce même Irak l’année suivante …  La liste serait bien trop longue. Mais une chose est sûre, ce qui était au vingtième siècle le futur ressemble horriblement à ce qui était vu, à l’époque, comme un passé révolu.

Des écrivains comme Rushdie, tous les pouvoirs tyranniques en ont toujours emprisonné, interdit, torturé voire tué. Dans le contexte individuel de 1989, plus encore en France, Rushdie était devenu le symbole vivant d’un mal nouveau, menaçant un monde où le Mur de Berlin était toujours debout même si l’URSS vaincue en Afghanistan semblait à genoux. Mais avec le nouveau siècle est venue l’expansion de la nouvelle technologie, et avec elle, la possibilité d’être auteur sans plus devoir passer par un journal ou une maison d’édition, avec l’apparition des blogs et, pas toujours pour le meilleur, des réseaux sociaux. Et qui dit nouveaux moyens d’expression dit nouvelle peur pour les régimes répressifs, et avec cette nouvelle peur, de nouveaux motifs de répression. Publié sur papier ou autopublié sur Internet, qu’importe aujourd’hui, vous risquez tout autant de payer cher le moindre de vos mots contre qui veut régner en imposant le silence.

Active au sein du Conseil des Droits de l’Homme des Nations Unies, l’Association of World Citizens ne s’est jamais limitée pour autant à cette seule enceinte genevoise, ayant toujours porté la défense des Droits Humains partout où elle le peut.

En Tunisie où, depuis un an, les initiatives du Président Kaïs Saied mettent à mal l’héritage de la Révolution de janvier 2011, le journaliste Salah Attia en a fait les frais pour avoir dénoncé ces dérives autoritaires en direct sur la chaîne Al Jazeera. Jugé sur ce seul fondement par des militaires en uniforme, il s’est retrouvé détenu à la prison de Mornaguia près de Tunis. Dans la Libye voisine qui n’a jamais su trouver sa voie nouvelle depuis la révolte populaire contre Mu’ammar Kadhafi, hélas devenue intervention militaire franco-britannique aux motifs plus qu’incertains, c’est Mansour Atti, journaliste lui aussi, mais également blogueur et dirigeant local du Croissant-Rouge, qui fut enlevé en juin 2021 par un groupe armé réputé proche des Forces armées libyennes.

Toujours en Afrique mais plus au sud, dans la Corne du continent, en Somalie où l’État central ne s’est jamais vraiment reconstitué depuis 1990 et la désagrégation du pays après la fin de la dictature de Mohamed Siad Barré, un journaliste indépendant nommé Kilwe Adan Farah fut arrêté en décembre 2020 dans la région autonome de facto du Puntland où il venait de couvrir une manifestation contre les autorités locales. Jugé lui aussi par un tribunal militaire, il fut condamné à trois ans d’emprisonnement pour avoir «répandu des fausses nouvelles et incité au mépris envers l’État». A ce jour, il purge encore sa peine.

Kilwe Adan Farah

Le terrorisme jihadiste en France et ailleurs l’a prouvé : ce qui menaçait Salman Rushdie n’a jamais disparu, tout au plus changé de forme. Mais aujourd’hui, là où un interdit fanatique peut toujours frapper quelqu’un qui s’exprime par l’écrit, l’interdit peut venir également des forces armées dans un pays cherchant sa voie constitutionnelle et, dans le meilleur des cas, démocratique. Quitte à oser vouloir faire croire qu’un écrit public dénué de toute intention malveillante peut menacer un pays tout entier de ne jamais (re)trouver une vie libre et paisible.

En France, en Grande-Bretagne et aux Etats-Unis, mais bien sûr pas seulement, la loi permet de saisir la justice contre un écrit public et obtenir soit réparation si l’on est visé à titre personnel, soit condamnation pénale dans le cas d’un abus de la liberté d’expression internationalement reconnaissable comme tel, par exemple à travers la jurisprudence de la Cour européenne des Droits de l’Homme. Et ce sera toujours, dans ces trois pays et partout ailleurs dans le monde, une infaillible indication du respect de l’État de droit par opposition à la loi de la jungle ou à celle du talion. Quiconque se reconnaît Citoyen du Monde doit défendre sans faille ces principes, sachant que là où un écrit peut valoir la mort, il n’est aucune responsabilité envers sa communauté locale, a fortiori envers la communauté humaine mondiale, que l’on puisse entendre assumer à moins que ce ne soit, au bout du compte, en vain.

Bernard J. Henry est Officier des Relations Extérieures de l’Association of World Citizens.

The Fire of Love: A Sufi Path in Islam

In Asia, Being a World Citizen, Cultural Bridges, Middle East & North Africa, Solidarity, Spirituality, The Search for Peace on November 28, 2021 at 5:45 PM

By René Wadlow

Enough of phrases and conceits and metaphors!

I want burning, burning, become familiar with

that burning! Light up a fire of love in thy soul,

Burn all thought and expressions away.

Jalal al-Din Rumi

Sufism — mysticism in the Islamic world — has flourished chiefly in Arab countries and in Persia, and later in what is now India and Pakistan. In Persia and the Indian Sub-continent, Sufism built upon earlier pre-Islamic traditions of mystic thought. As Walter Stace noted in his Teachings of the Mystics, “The natural drift toward pantheism which is a general feature of mysticism in the West — where the theologians and ecclesiastical authorities try to suppress it and brand it as heresy — is even more pronounced in Sufism than in Christianity — although Muslim orthodoxy disapproves of it quite as emphatically as Christian orthodoxy does. Indeed, the Islamic disapproval may be stronger than the Christian, owing to its more rigid monotheism. After all, no Christian mystic was ever martyred for his pantheistic utterances, whereas this did happen in Baghdad” to Al Hallaj in 922.

Sufism is not one homogeneous body of thought or a well-defined set of doctrines and practices. There is considerable internal diversity. However, central to Sufi practice is the role of the spiritual teacher (pir or sheikh) who is believed to have received esoteric wisdom from his own master forming a chain. The role of the teacher has always been to guide the disciple in ways of meditation or other mystical practices often related to breathing so he would acquire spiritual insight through inner experience.

Jalal al-Din Rumi

These chains can be considered separate spiritual orders. Often the tomb of a Sufi leader becomes a shrine and a pilgrimage site. In Pakistan recently, there have been armed attacks on popular Sufi shrines carried out by more legalistic Muslim groups.

Spirituality, in the Sufi tradition, cannot be set apart from life itself, and spiritual development can only be realized through living life to the fullest expression of our potential, using all of our human faculties with the ideal of becoming a more complete human being.

In Europe and the USA, one of the best known of the Sufi ‘chains’ is that of an Indian teacher Hazrat Inayat Khan, of the Chishti Sufi Order, named after the Indian town where it had its headquarters who came to the West in 1910 to create a Sufi movement in North America and Europe. He set his headquarters in Geneva, an international city because of the League of Nations. He married Ora Baker, a cousin of Mary Baker Eddy, founder of The Christian Science Monitor. His son Vilayat Inayat Khan succeeded him. In 2000, the grandson Zia Inayat Khan assumed leadership of what has become the Sufi Order International.

In the West, the Islamic base of the teaching is rarely stressed though it is not denied. Most of the members do not come from traditional Muslim families. Here in France where I have had some contacts, most members are not from North Africa which makes up the bulk of the Islamic population but are rather Europeans who are looking for meditation techniques and who could have chosen Tibetan Buddhism had a different opportunity presented itself.

Pir Vilayat Inayat Khan

Pir Vilayat has written on the aims of his work: “I am trying to develop an updated spirituality for our times. I believe that to develop our own being to the highest potential we need to discover our ideal and allow an inborn strength, a conviction in ourselves, to give us the courage toward developing this ideal. This requires both knowing our life purpose and mastery or discipline over ourselves in terms of body, mind, and emotions. With an attitude of joy and enthusiasm, we do not suppress but instead control and direct impulses toward the fulfillment of our goals.”

There is a good deal of emphasis placed on “opening the heart” and love as love is considered an attribute of God. Pir Vilayat wrote “When the light of love has been lit, the heart becomes transparent, so that the intelligence of the soul can see through it; but until the heart is kindled by the flame of love, the intelligence, which is constantly yearning to experience life on the surface, is groping in the dark.”

Philip Gowins has written a useful introduction which outlines exercises linked both to breathing and to creative visualization in meditation. The subtitle of the book is “A Field Guide to the Spiritual Path” (1). However, the emphasis is on the need for a teacher as writings are only of limited help and in working alone one may misjudge one’s own progress on the path.

******************************************

Note

1) Philip Gowins. Practical Sufism: A Guide to the Spiritual Path (Wheaton, IL: Quest Books, 2010, 219 pp.)

******************************************

Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.

International Day of Multilateralism and Diplomacy for Peace

In Being a World Citizen, Conflict Resolution, Cultural Bridges, NGOs, The Search for Peace, Track II, United Nations, World Law on April 26, 2021 at 7:40 PM

By René Wadlow

April 24, International Day of Multilateralism and Diplomacy for Peace was established by the United Nations (UN) General Assembly and first observed on April 24, 2019. The resolution establishing the Day is in part a reaction to the “America First, America First” cry of the U. S. President, Donald Trump, but other states are also following narrow nationalistic policies and economic protectionism. The Day stresses the use of multilateral decision-making in achieving the peaceful resolution of conflicts. Yet as the UN Secretary-General, Antonio Guterres, said, “Multilateralism is not only a matter of confronting shared threats, it is about seizing common opportunities.”

One hour after Trygve Lie arrived in New York as the first UN Secretary-General in March 1946, the Ambassador of Iran handed him the complaint of his country against the presence of Soviet troops in northern Iran. From that moment on, the UN has lived with constant conflict-resolution tasks to be accomplished. The isolated diplomatic conference of the past, like the Congress of Vienna in 1815 after the Napoleonic wars has been replaced by an organization continually at work on all its manifold problems. If the world is to move forward to a true world society, this can be done only through an organization such as the UN which is based on universality, continuity, and comprehensiveness.

Europe after the Congress of Vienna in 1815

Today’s world society evolved from an earlier international structure based on states and their respective goals, often termed “the national interest”. This older system was based on the idea that there is an inevitable conflict among social groups: the class struggle for the Marxists, the balance of power for the Nationalists. Thus, negotiations among government representatives are a structured way of mitigating conflicts but not a way of moving beyond conflict.

However, in the UN there is a structural tension between national sovereignty and effective international organization. In the measure that an international organization is effective, it is bound to impair the freedom of action of its members, and in the measure that the member states assert their freedom of action, they impair the effectiveness of the international organization. The UN Charter itself testifies to that unresolved tension by stressing on the one hand the “sovereign equality” of all member states and, on the other, assigning to the permanent five members of the Security Council a privileged position.

The UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) in session

Nonetheless, what was not foreseen in 1945 when the UN Charter was drafted was the increasing international role of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). “We the Peoples” in whose name the UN Charter is established, are present in the activities of the UN through NGOs in consultative status with the Economic and Social Council. NGOs have played a crucial role in awareness-building and in the creation of new programs in the fields of population, refugees and migrants, women and children, human rights, and food. Now, there is a strong emphasis on the consequences of climate change as the issue has moved beyond the reports of climate experts to broad and strong NGO actions.

This increase in the UN related nongovernmental action arises out of the work and ideas of many people active in social movements: spiritual, ecological, human potential, feminist, and human rights. Many individuals saw that their activities had a world dimension, and that the UN and such Specialized Agencies as UNESCO provided avenues for action. Thus, as we mark the International Day of Multilateralism and Diplomacy for Peace, we recognize that there is the growth, worldwide, of a new spirit which is inclusive, creative, and thus life-transforming.

Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.

Pitirim Sorokin: The Renewal of Humanity

In Being a World Citizen, Conflict Resolution, Cultural Bridges, Democracy, Europe, Literature, The former Soviet Union, The Search for Peace on January 24, 2021 at 7:26 PM

By René Wadlow

Pitirim Sorokin (1889-1968) whose birth anniversary we mark on January 21, was concerned, especially in the period after the Second World War, with the relation between the values and attitudes of the individual and their impact on the wider society. His key study Society, Culture and Personality: Their Structure and Dynamics (1947) traced the relations between the development of the personality, the wider cultural values in which the personality was formed, and the structures of the society.

Pitirim Sorokin

The two World Wars convinced him that humanity was in a period of transition, that the guideline of earlier times had broken down and had not yet been replaced by a new set of values and motivations. To bring about real renewal, one had to work at the same time on the individual personality, on cultural values as created by art, literature, education, and on the social framework. One had to work on all three at once, not one after the other as some who hope that inner peace will produce outer peace. In his Reconstruction of Humanity (1948), he stressed the fact that “if we want to raise the moral standards of large populations, we must change correspondingly the mind and behavior of the individuals making up these populations, and their social institutions and their cultures.”

Sorokin was born in a rural area in the north of Russia. Both his parents died when he was young. He had to work in handicraft trades in order to go to the University of St. Petersburg where his intelligence was noted, and he received scholarships to carry out his studies in law and in the then new academic discipline of sociology. After obtaining his doctorate, he was asked to create the first Department of Sociology at the University of St. Petersburg. However, the study of the nature of society was a dangerous undertaking, and he was imprisoned three times by the Tsarist regime.

He was among the social reformers that led to the first phase of the Russian Revolution in 1917. He served as private secretary to Aleksandr Kerensky, head of the Provisional Government and Sorokin was the editor of the government newspaper. When Kerensky was overthrown by Lenin, Sorokin became part of a highly vocal anti-Bolshevik faction, leading to his arrest and condemnation to death in 1923. At the last moment, after a number of his cell mates had been executed, Lenin modified the penalty to exile, and Sorokin left the USSR, never to return. His revolutionary activities are well-described in his autobiography A Long Journey (1963).

Aleksandr Kerensky

He went to the United States and taught at the University of Minnesota (1924-1930) where he carried out important empirical studies on social mobility, especially rural to urban migration. These studies were undertaken at a time when sociology was becoming increasingly recognized as a specific discipline. Sorokin was invited to teach at Harvard University where the Department of Social Ethics was transformed into the Department of Sociology with Sorokin as its head. He continued teaching sociology at Harvard until his retirement in 1955 when the Harvard Research Center in Creative Altruism was created so that he could continue his research and writing.

Of the three pillars that make up society − personality, culture, and social structure − personality may be the easiest to modify. Therefore, he turned his attention to how a loving or altruistic personality could be developed. He noted that in slightly different terms: love, compassion, sympathy, mercy, benevolence, reverence, Eros, Agape and mutual aid − all affirm supreme love as the highest moral value and its imperatives as the universal and perennial moral commandments. He stressed the fact that an ego-transcending altruistic transformation is not possible without a corresponding change in the structure of one’s ego, values and norms of conduct. Such changes have to be brought about by the individual himself, by his own effortful thinking, meditation, volition and self-analysis. He was strongly attracted to yoga which acted on the body, mind, and spirit.

Sorokin believed that love or compassion must be universal if it were to provide a basis for social reconstruction. Partial love, he said, can be worse than indifference. “If unselfish love does not extend over the whole of mankind, if it is confined within one group − a given family, tribe, nation, race, religious denomination, political party, trade union, caste, social class or any part of humanity − in such an in-group altruism tends to generate an out-group antagonism. And the more intense and exclusive the in-group solidarity of its members, the more unavoidable are the clashes between the group and the rest of humanity.

Sorokin was especially interested in the processes by which societies change cultural orientations, particularly the violent societies he knew, the USSR and the USA. As he wrote renewal “demands a complete change of contemporary mentality, a fundamental transformation of our system of values and the profoundest modification of our conduct toward other men, cultural values and the world at large. All this cannot be achieved without the incessant, strenuous active efforts on the part of every individual.”

Notes

For a biography see: B. V. Johnston, Pitirim A. Sorokin: An Intellectual Biography (University Press of Kansas, 1995)

For an overview of his writings see: Frank Cowell, History, Civilization and Culture: An Introduction to the Historical and Social Philosophy of Pitirim A. Sorokin (Boston: Beacon Press, 1952)

For Sorokin’s late work on the role of altruism see: P. A. Sorokin, The Ways and Power of Love (Boston, Beacon Press, 1954) A new reprint was published by Templeton Press in 2002

Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.