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Plan arabe pour reconstruire Gaza : le peacebuilding, «C’était mieux avant»

In Being a World Citizen, Conflict Resolution, Cultural Bridges, Current Events, Human Rights, Humanitarian Law, International Justice, Middle East & North Africa, NGOs, Peacebuilding, Solidarity, The Search for Peace, United Nations, World Law on March 10, 2025 at 7:00 AM

Par Bernard J. Henry

«You’re fired !», «T’es viré !». C’est par ces trois mots brutaux que Donald Trump, jusqu’alors homme d’affaires parmi les plus célèbres des Etats-Unis, en dépit même de plusieurs échecs retentissants comme sa «Trump University» qui ne vécut que six ans et mourut en 2011 dans le scandale, s’est imposé en 2014 dans une nouvelle carrière, celle d’animateur de télé-réalité. Dans une émission intitulée The Apprentice (L’Apprenti), des candidats se mettaient dans la peau d’aspirants-Trump et, lorsque l’un d’eux décevait trop l’animateur-juge-arbitre, il se voyait expulsé de l’émission sur ces trois mots. En fin de compte, une série de commentaires xénophobes sur les Mexicains ont amené les producteurs à se séparer de Trump en 2015. On connaît la suite, qui se joue de nouveau depuis janvier dernier.

Trump aime l’image, il aime l’excès, et plus encore les deux à la fois. Voilà pourquoi la vidéo qu’il a relayée le mois dernier sur ses réseaux sociaux, créée par un studio californien et où l’Intelligence Artificielle (IA) rêve d’une Bande de Gaza pacifiée, reconstruite et transformée, selon sa propre expression, en «Riviera du Moyen-Orient», entièrement rendue au luxe et, surtout, à la vénération de Trump lui-même en dieu sauveur, sur fond de clichés racistes envers la population palestinienne locale dépeinte dans son entier comme un Hamas apprivoisé, a légitimement choqué mais ne pouvait surprendre personne. Avant même ce nouvel hommage audiovisuel de Trump à lui-même, bientôt suivi par une séance de brutalisation publique à l’écran du Président ukrainien Volodymyr Zelenskyy en duo avec le Vice-président Elon Musk – non, pardon, J.D. Vance, les pays arabes avaient déjà fait savoir ce qu’ils comptaient faire du plan de Trump, bien sûr entièrement favorable à Israël et au gouvernement d’extrême droite de Benyamin Netanyahu. Sans même avoir besoin d’aller jusqu’à «You’re fired !», ils avaient d’emblée répondu «You’re not hired !», «Tu n’es pas embauché !».

Un plan alternatif conçu par les pays arabes a ensuite été annoncé, présenté le 4 mars par la Présidence égyptienne et repris en détail sur Middle East Eye. Sans surprise là encore, le plan arabe ne reprend rien du rêve de Trump de transformer Gaza en «Riviera» mais cherche à recréer, en cinq ans de temps, une Bande de Gaza habitable et exploitable par une population palestinienne qu’il entend, au-delà des seules questions économiques et sociales, réintégrer au droit international, ce droit international dont la population palestinienne dans son entier est privée depuis 1948 certes, mais plus encore depuis le 7 octobre 2023, d’abord avec le pogrom perpétré par le Hamas dans le sud d’Israël depuis Gaza, viols massifs et prises d’otages à l’appui, et ensuite, depuis le 8, avec la campagne militaire destructrice et meurtrière de la Force de Défense israélienne (Tsahal) sur place, à tel point que l’idée de trêve, en tout cas durable, en devient d’emblée dérisoire. A examiner ce plan de plus près, il est difficile d’échapper à la tentation du «C’était mieux avant», tant les solutions proposées ont tôt fait de prendre un goût de déjà-vu, hélas jamais traduit en un «déjà fait».

Un immeuble détruit par Tsahal à Al-Remal, Gaza, le 10 octobre 2023 (C) Omar Naaman / APAimages

Le Hamas exclu – pas forcément pour les raisons que l’on croit

Le premier trait, et le plus saillant, du plan arabe pour Gaza, c’est la mise à l’écart du Hamas, le «Mouvement de la Résistance Islamique», de son nom complet, vainqueur inattendu des élections législatives palestiniennes début 2006 et, depuis juin 2007, seul maître à bord à Gaza après en avoir évincé l’Autorité palestinienne de Mahmoud Abbas à l’issue d’un bref conflit armé.

En 2008 et 2009, le gouvernement israélien du parti Kadima, fondé par Ariel Sharon en scission du Likoud alors qu’il était Premier Ministre, avait affronté une première fois le Hamas à Gaza lors de l’Opération «Plomb Durci». Revenu au pouvoir à la tête du Likoud après la désertion de Sharon, Benyamin Netanyahu avait fait de même en 2012, 2014, 2018, 2021 et 2022, tout en le laissant en place à Gaza.

Dès le lendemain, littéralement, du drame du 7 octobre 2023, la presse israélienne avait relevé cette contradiction, n’hésitant pas à l’accuser d’avoir «soutenu» le Hamas et lui imputant la responsabilité du pogrom, son seul but ayant été, poursuivaient les journalistes de son pays, d’avoir voulu couver le Hamas pour faire pièce à l’Autorité palestinienne et l’empêcher de progresser vers la création d’un Etat palestinien. Plus tard, les familles des otages du Hamas s’en sont prises au Premier Ministre en l’accusant d’ignorer le sort des leurs, jusqu’à empêcher tout accord avec le Hamas pour la libération de leurs proches.

Que les pays arabes, dont les dirigeants font pour la plupart face à des oppositions internes d’inspiration islamiste, ne tiennent guère à favoriser le Hamas pour la reconstruction de Gaza, rien de très étonnant. Mais que leur volonté d’écarter le mouvement islamiste soit guidée par un souci de modernité et de démocratie à Gaza plus que par celui de mettre hors-jeu une formation qui, tout en se posant en premier rempart contre Israël, n’en a pas moins fait le jeu du Likoud autant que Netanyahu a fait celui d’un Meshaal ou d’un Sinwar, il y a bien de quoi en douter.

Quoi qu’il en soit, seul le résultat compte et le plan arabe ferme la porte au Hamas, même s’il ne s’agit ainsi que de dire leur refus des velléités d’Israël. Et pour la suite, les pays arabes savent ce qu’ils veulent pour le peuple de Gaza.

Un projet résolu, concret et chiffré

Ce qu’ils veulent, c’est replacer l’Autorité palestinienne au cœur de l’avenir de Gaza en lui confiant la tête d’un Comité d’Administration de Gaza pour six mois, un comité que formeraient technocrates et personnalités non-partisanes sous la coordination du gouvernement palestinien de Ramallah, en Cisjordanie. Selon le plan, Égypte et Jordanie se chargeraient de former une police de l’Autorité palestinienne pour déploiement à Gaza, d’autres pays étant appelés à apporter un appui politique et financier à la formation de cette police dans l’avenir proche.

Ce qu’ils veulent, c’est replacer également l’ONU au centre du jeu, l’ONU bannie par Israël sous la forme de son Agence de Secours et de Travaux pour les Réfugiés de Palestine, plus communément désignée sous son acronyme anglais UNRWA, l’ONU dont les représentants du Secrétaire Général se sont eux aussi retrouvés déclarés persona non grata en territoire israélien. Selon le plan, l’Organisation mondiale doit envisager, à travers son Conseil de Sécurité, une «présence internationale» à Gaza – ainsi qu’en Cisjordanie même, soit sous la forme d’une protection internationale soit à travers des troupes de maintien de la paix, en tant que partie intégrante du processus de reconstruction.

Qui dit troupes de maintien de la paix dit existence de deux belligérants qu’il faut forcer à ne plus l’être puis, en déployant de telles troupes, dissuader de l’être à nouveau. Dans le contexte israélo-palestinien, voilà qui renvoie immanquablement à l’idée de deux États, battue en brèche depuis octobre 2023. Le plan arabe la réhabilite et la présente même comme étant la seule et unique solution, sans aucune alternative, donc comme le seul fondement à donner y compris aux mesures les plus immédiates qu’il préconise.

Pour les six premiers mois, le plan commence par demander une trêve à moyen terme entre Israël et, donc, non pas le Hamas mais bien l’Autorité palestinienne, une trêve qui ne s’appliquât pas dans la seule Bande de Gaza mais aussi en Cisjordanie. Le plan propose de consolider la trêve par des négociations entre les deux parties et, surtout, des mesures pour bâtir la confiance – la base même du peacebuilding, la «construction de la paix». Un premier pas indispensable, toujours selon le plan, est l’arrêt immédiat des actes unilatéraux «des deux côtés», ce bien qu’Israël soit le premier concerné, se voyant ainsi sommé de cesser toute implantation, annexion, démolition, raid militaire sur des villes palestiniennes ou tentative d’altérer le statut juridique et historique des lieux saints.

En six mois, des abris temporaires doivent aussi être construits pour un million et demi de personnes, les débris doivent être déblayés pour ouvrir un couloir servant à la reconstruction, avant de passer à l’étape suivante prévue pour deux ans. Viendra alors le temps de réhabiliter soixante mille logements endommagés, d’en construire deux cent mille neufs pour un million six cent mille personnes, de réhabiliter huit mille cent hectares de terre cultivable, ainsi que d’équiper Gaza en électricité, télécommunications et bâtiments utilitaires.

Pendant ces deux ans, une question cruciale partout au Moyen-Orient devra être réglée – la question de l’eau. Le plan prévoit l’installation de l’eau courante, de systèmes anti-incendie et d’assainissement, mais aussi la construction de deux usines de désalinisation, deux réservoirs d’eau potable et anti-incendie, deux autres pour l’eau d’irrigation agricole et deux usines de traitement des eaux usées.

Après ces deux ans s’ouvrira l’ultime phase du plan, étalée sur deux ans et demi. D’ici là, il faudra avoir terminé la construction de logements pour trois millions de personnes en tout, d’une zone industrielle de deux cent quarante-trois hectares, d’un port de pêche, d’un port commercial, d’un aéroport international et d’une route côtière de dix kilomètres.

Pour faire renaître ainsi une Bande de Gaza qui n’a connu jusqu’ici, depuis le désengagement israélien de 2005, que la théocratie armée du Hamas et les déchaînements de Tsahal, les pays arabes estiment nécessaire une somme de cinquante-trois milliards de dollars américains, qu’ils attendent de l’ONU, des institutions financières internationales, des fonds d’investissement ainsi que des agences et banques de développement.

Ils espèrent également compter sur les investissements directs de sociétés étrangères mais aussi, et c’est une bonne surprise, sur les organisations de la société civile, dont ils reconnaissent qu’elles jouent un rôle essentiel pour la mobilisation des ressources financières pour voir guérir et renaître Gaza.

Autre bonne surprise, pour accroître la transparence et l’efficacité, il sera créé un fonds fiduciaire supervisé internationalement, chargé de contrôler les investissements et les dépenses dans le cadre du plan.

(C) Middle East Eye

La douleur du passé refoulé

Bien entendu, quelques manques se font sentir, par exemple en termes de garanties de respect des Droits Humains par l’Autorité palestinienne ainsi remise en position de force à Gaza ; comment attendre d’une population locale qui n’a que trop vu ses droits violés qu’elle en accepte davantage encore sous le prétexte de la reconstruction ? Puisque nous sortons du 8 mars, Journée internationale des Droits des Femmes, quid de la Résolution 1325 du Conseil de Sécurité qui «fête» en octobre prochain son quart de siècle ? Corrigibles en route, ces manques, sans doute. Oui, mais encore faut-il que le plan soit adopté en premier lieu par la communauté internationale, au sein de laquelle une Administration Trump vivant dans ses rêves et un gouvernement Netanyahu jouissant de toutes ses faveurs restent à convaincre.

Malgré tout, face aux chimères d’un Donald Trump, comment ne pas trouver ce plan arabe infiniment préférable, et comment ne pas le trouver non seulement plus réaliste mais autrement plus enthousiasmant ? Enthousiasmant et, c’est là tout son paradoxe, décevant. Oui, décevant, car s’il est pour l’heure le seul à porter tant soit peu une perspective viable pour Gaza, ce plan apparaît vite comme étant, plus qu’autre chose, un catalogue de faillites, celles des espérances passées de paix au Proche-Orient qu’il a paru plus simple, pour chacune en son temps, de laisser derrière soi avec toutes les conséquences que l’on sait à présent.

L’origine du plan elle-même, le statu quo maintenu par Netanyahu avec le Hamas et qui a fini par dégénérer en le pogrom d’octobre 2023, ne sent que trop sa redite d’une faillite politique, une faillite à l’autre bout du monde et peut-être venue, qui sait, d’un temps où Israël entretenait des relations étroites avec l’Afrique du Sud de l’apartheid alors Etat paria – à juste titre – dans le reste du monde. Après avoir fait libérer Nelson Mandela en 1990, le Président blanc afrikaner Frederik de Klerk avait entrepris des négociations avec l’African National Congress (ANC) jusqu’alors banni. Cependant, ces négociations s’étaient interrompues en 1991 et de Klerk avait alors pris pour prétexte la montée en puissance de l’Inkatha Freedom Party, formation de fondement zoulou menée par Mangosuthu Buthelezi et qui se voulait plus radicale que l’ANC face au pouvoir blanc.

Ce que de Klerk n’avouait pas, et pour cause, c’est que la montée de l’Inkatha était en fait l’œuvre de son propre gouvernement, avec le pari fou d’affaiblir ainsi l’ANC. Pari perdu. En fin de compte, de Klerk fut contraint de reprendre les discussions qui, en 1992, allaient aboutir au référendum abolissant les dernières lois d’apartheid – et ouvrant la voie aux élections de 1994 qui allaient porter Nelson Mandela au poste de premier Président d’une Afrique du Sud devenue non seulement multiraciale mais aussi pleinement démocratique. En cette même année 1992, dans la foulée de la Conférence de Madrid l’année précédente, Israël portait au pouvoir Yitzhak Rabin et son Parti travailliste, artisans de la poignée de main entre ce même Rabin et Yasser Arafat l’année suivante à la Maison Blanche.

Frederik de Klerk en 1990 (C) Walter Rutishauser / Bibliothèque Am Guisanplatz

Plus de trente ans ont passé, et à travers le plan arabe pour Gaza, quiconque a connu cette époque ne peut qu’adopter cette rengaine traditionnelle passéiste, «C’était mieux avant», tant ce que le plan propose renvoie à ce qui avait déjà été proposé, mais jamais appliqué ou trop peu pour avoir pu faire la différence.

L’Autorité palestinienne, création des Accords d’Oslo, avait reçu en 1994 un mandat résumé sous le titre «Gaza-Jéricho d’abord», du nom de ces deux territoires qui devaient servir de banc d’essai à son administration autonome. Sa police palestinienne avait reçu sa formation de plusieurs de ses homologues internationales, parmi lesquelles la Gendarmerie nationale française. Après quelques années de succès, la Seconde Intifada causée par les provocations gouvernementales israéliennes en 2000 a dépassé la police palestinienne qui, depuis, n’a jamais vraiment réussi à s’en relever, en dépit de certaines mesures de soutien international qui n’ont jamais réussi à raviver les espérances initiales.

(G. à d.) Le Premier Ministre israélien Menachem Begin, le Président américain Jimmy Carter et le Président égyptien Anouar el-Sadate à Camp David le 9 juillet 1978

Une «présence internationale», si besoin est sous la forme de troupes de maintien de la paix, ce n’est pas autrement que fut résolu le problème du Sinaï en 1978, à travers les Accords de Camp David sous l’impulsion du Président américain Jimmy Carter récemment disparu. L’Egypte réclamait la restitution du Sinaï qui lui revenait de droit, tandis qu’Israël s’y refusait de peur de voir l’armée égyptienne utiliser le Sinaï pour s’en prendre de nouveau à lui. En fin de compte, la solution trouvée fut de restituer à l’Egypte le Sinaï mais démilitarisé, placé sous la responsabilité d’une Force multinationale d’Observateurs qui y demeure active à ce jour. Après six batailles à Gaza entre 2008 et 2022, jamais le gouvernement israélien n’a proposé de reprendre cette idée, pourtant couronnée de succès. Pourquoi ?

Il est vrai que le nationalisme israélien s’accommode mal de la période où, entre 1978 et 1982, Israël a dû mettre en œuvre l’accord de paix qui le liait maintenant à son voisin égyptien, cette période portant pour les faucons d’Israël un nom spécifique : Yamit. En 1972, sur la côte méditerranéenne du Sinaï occupé depuis 1967 et la Guerre des Six Jours remportée par Israël, Ariel Sharon, alors général de Tsahal, faisait expulser en secret, sur l’ordre du Ministre de la Défense Moshe Dayan, ancien général et «conquérant du Sinaï», des fermiers bédouins de la plaine de Rafah pour créer sur place une colonie de peuplement, à laquelle était donné le nom de Yamit. Déjà à l’époque, Israël rêvait de sa «Riviera du Moyen-Orient», souhaitant attirer de nouveaux habitants grâce à des coûts fonciers peu élevés et, plus encore, faire de Yamit un port commercial. Mais le public israélien n’achetait pas, littéralement parlant, puis, en avril 1982, en application des Accords de Camp David, Israël devait évacuer Yamit.

Même si la plupart acceptaient d’être indemnisés par Tel Aviv et de partir, Tsahal devait tout de même intervenir pour évacuer les habitants, peu nombreux mais toujours trop, qui refusaient de partir, dont des partisans du «Grand Israël». L’évacuation avait lieu dans la douleur, sous les ordres du Ministre israélien de la Défense, un certain …  Ariel Sharon, le même qui, dix ans plus tôt, avait fait place nette pour la création de la colonie. Refusant de laisser Le Caire utiliser quoi que ce soit de sa construction, Israël rasait Yamit, suscitant ainsi la colère en Egypte. Quant à Sharon, devenu Premier Ministre, le fantôme de Yamit allait revenir le hanter lorsqu’en 2005, il ordonnerait l’évacuation par la force de Gaza. Un premier essai de «Riviera du Moyen-Orient» dont l’issue n’aurait pu être pire. Et dont les leçons auraient dû être retenues …

Ariel Sharon pendant son mandat de Premier Ministre d’Israël (C) Avi Ohayon / Government Press Office of Israel

Reste la solution à deux Etats, sur laquelle repose tout le plan arabe. L’Initiative de Genève, mise en avant par les anciens négociateurs du sommet de Taba en 2003, et la Feuille de route proposée la même année par les Nations Unies ne l’envisageaient pas elles-mêmes différemment. La seconde prévoyait la fin du conflit israélo-palestinien en 2005. Il fallait bien qu’un Ariel Sharon à la tête non seulement du Likoud, mais aussi de ce qui était alors le gouvernement le plus à droite de l’histoire d’Israël, ne puisse s’y faire. Face à ces perspectives de paix, son idée fut d’ériger un mur entre Israël et la Cisjordanie, ayant pris prétexte de lutter contre le terrorisme mais n’ayant pu ignorer qu’il ne pouvait s’agir au mieux que d’une solution à très court terme, ses intentions réelles ne pouvant laisser de doute. Saisie de la question, la Cour internationale de Justice avait clairement désavoué Sharon. C’était encore avant la brouille avec Netanyahu, la fondation de Kadima et, in fine, l’évacuation forcée de Gaza.

Sharon voulait la hafrada, la séparation physique entre Israéliens et Palestiniens dans les Territoires occupés. L’idée lui était aussi venue que les démographies opposées des populations juive et arabe, la première en déclin et la seconde en constante hausse, finiraient par produire une majorité arabe en Israël et dans les Territoires, ramenant les Juifs à l’état de minorité dans ce qui était censé devenir «l’Etat juif».

S’il en était venu, lui, le faucon parmi les faucons, idole des nationalistes, à souhaiter désormais l’établissement d’un Etat palestinien et se mettre à dos Netanyahu qui s’obstinait à le rejeter, ce n’était pas parce que le faucon serait soudainement devenu colombe, mais parce qu’il y voyait le seul moyen de garder l’Etat d’Israël strictement juif, en tout cas avec les Juifs comme population dominante, Israël comptant aussi parmi ses citoyens des Arabes qui, il est vrai, ne votaient pas pour Sharon et ne comptaient donc pas pour lui.

Là où Netanyahu a reproduit avec le Hamas l’erreur de Frederik de Klerk avec l’Inkatha, Sharon avait été le premier à se mettre dans les pas du même de Klerk, élu pour prolonger l’apartheid mais qui s’était fait l’artisan de sa fin, non parce qu’il aurait fini par en comprendre l’horreur absolue mais parce qu’il estimait que le système ne pouvait pas ou plus fonctionner. A ceci près que, là où de Klerk avait aidé à détruire le système raciste qu’il avait si longtemps défendu, Sharon ne voulait rien détruire mais, au contraire, espérait porter la séparation raciale à son extrême.

Depuis l’évacuation de Gaza, vingt années se sont écoulées. Depuis la mort de Yasser Arafat, assiégé à Ramallah depuis 2000 et finalement évacué vers la France, vingt-et-une. Depuis la victoire électorale du Hamas et la fin du mandat d’Ariel Sharon, dix-neuf. Depuis la prise du pouvoir du Hamas à Gaza, dix-huit. Quel que soit le repère que l’on choisit parmi ceux-ci, il n’en sort qu’une évidence – il s’est écoulé suffisamment de temps pour que l’on comprenne que les années 2000 étaient le meilleur espoir de paix au Proche-Orient et qu’on l’a laissé filer.

Yasser Arafat à Oslo (Norvège) en 1994 (C) Saar Yaacov / Government Press Office of Israel

Rebâtir Gaza – et un espoir de paix

C’est aussi ce que nous disent les dirigeants arabes qui ont approuvé le plan pour Gaza. Leur but n’est pas de raviver un plan de paix au Proche-Orient, «seulement» de rebâtir Gaza en préservant la dignité humaine de la population arabe palestinienne, meilleur moyen qui soit de préserver la sécurité pour la population juive – et arabe – israélienne, loin d’une Gaza de fiction qui n’existe que dans les fantasmes des nouveaux dirigeants des Etats-Unis. Pourtant, au point où nous en sommes, est-il encore possible de dissocier la reconstruction de Gaza de la paix au Proche-Orient dans son entier ? Est-il en fait souhaitable de distinguer les deux ?

Vingt ans, si l’on ne se base que sur le désengagement israélien de Gaza, c’est long. Entre les diverses opérations de Tsahal sur place, les attentats en Israël et, bien sûr, le 7 octobre ainsi que ses suites, une quantité inhumaine de vies ont été perdues, plus encore ont été brisées. Mais pour celles qu’il est possible de sauver, à Gaza et en Cisjordanie, pour ouvrir enfin l’espoir en Israël d’un avenir autre que la haine et la mort sous Netanyahu, il faut que le plan soit adopté et aille jusqu’au bout.

En dehors de sa finalité matérielle, importante et urgente au point d’en être une question de vie ou de mort, le plan arabe pour Gaza est sans doute là pour rappeler cette triste évidence : les espoirs de paix au Proche-Orient, «C’était mieux avant». Le temps avance mais ne recule jamais, impossible de retrouver cet «avant» et de tout reprendre à zéro. Le passé n’est pas fait pour y vivre. En revanche, il peut être un extraordinaire enseignant si l’on sait, si l’on veut, en tirer les leçons.

De cette victoire à remporter sur la rancœur, sur l’orgueil, ou sur les deux dépend l’avenir, ne serait-ce que la survie, d’un endroit que les Israéliens s’étaient habitués pendant la Première Intifada à comparer à l’enfer, l’expression hébraïque «Lekh le-Azza !», «Va à Gaza !» étant devenue l’équivalent de «Va au diable !» en français. Le paradis onirique d’un Donald Trump se croyant un messie ne sauvera pas Gaza. Mais le plan des dirigeants arabes est la meilleure chance de la sauver de l’enfer qu’elle subit depuis 2007, celui d’un diable aux deux visages, Hamas d’un côté, Netanyahu de l’autre. Et de comprendre qu’il n’est que temps de réparer, autant que faire se peut encore, les sanglantes erreurs du passé.

(G. à d.) : Le Premier Ministre israélien Yitzhak Rabin, le Président américain Bill Clinton et Yasser Arafat, Président de l’État de Palestine, le 13 septembre 1993 à la Maison Blanche (C) Vince Musi / The White House

Bernard J. Henry est Officier des Relations Extérieures de l’Association of World Citizens.

Citizens of the World Strive Against Rape as a Weapon of War

In Africa, Being a World Citizen, Children's Rights, Current Events, Europe, Human Rights, Humanitarian Law, International Justice, NGOs, Peacebuilding, Solidarity, Sudan, The Balkan Wars, The Search for Peace, Track II, United Nations, War Crimes, Women's Rights, World Law on March 8, 2025 at 6:45 PM

By René Wadlow

On March 6, 2025, the United Nations (UN) Children’s Fund (UNICEF) warned that many children in the conflicts among militias in Sudan are at risk of rape and other forms of sexual violence which are being used as weapons of war. In November 2024, the Association of World Citizens (AWC) had highlighted that rape was being used as a weapon of war in the Sudan conflicts and that strong counter measures are needed.

As Meredeth Turshen and Clotilde Twagiramariya point out in their book What Women Do in Wartime: Gender and Conflict in Africa (London: Zed Press, 1998),

“There are numerous types of rape. Rape is committed to boast the soldiers’ morale, to feed soldiers’ hatred of the enemy, their sense of superiority, and to keep them fighting; rape is one kind of war booty; women are raped because war intensifies men’s sense of entitlement, superiority, avidity and social license to rape; rape is a weapon of war used to spread political terror; rape can destabilize a society and break its resistance; rape is a form of torture; gang rapes in public terrorize and silence women and force them to flee homes, families and communities; rape targets women because they keep the civilian population functioning and are essential to its social and physical continuity; rape is used in ethnic cleansing; it is designed to drive women from their homes or destroy the possibility of reproduction; genocidal rape treats women as reproductive vessels to make them bear babies of the rapists’ nationality, ethnicity, race or religion, and genocidal rape aggravates women’s terror and future stigma, producing a class of outcast mothers and children – this is rape committed with consciousness of how unacceptable a raped woman is to the patriarchal community and to herself. This list combines individual and group motives with obedience to military command; in doing so, it gives a political context to violence against women, and it is this political context that needs to be incorporated in the social response to rape.”

The AWC first raised the issue of rape as a weapon of war in the UN Commission on Human Rights in March 2001 after the judgement of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) maintained that there can be no time limitation on bringing an accused to trial. The Tribunal also reinforced the possibility of universal jurisdiction – that a person can be tried not only by his national court but by any court claiming universal jurisdiction and where the accused is present.

As Citizens of the World, we need to have a peace-building approach which asks: How does a political conflict degenerate into pervasive mass violence, generating new crises and new forms of violent conflict in the future? Even after a war ends, the effects of sexual violence continue in the form of unwanted pregnancies, sexually transmitted infections, discrimination and ostracizing of victims and often lasting psychological damage. Thus, we must ask how a community pulls itself out from the cycle of violence and creates new attitudes to promote human dignity and develop new institutions of conflict resolution.

Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.

Child Soldiers: From International Norms to Local Practice

In Africa, Being a World Citizen, Children's Rights, Conflict Resolution, Current Events, Human Rights, Humanitarian Law, International Justice, NGOs, Peacebuilding, Solidarity, The Search for Peace, Track II, United Nations, War Crimes, World Law on February 28, 2025 at 10:00 AM

By René Wadlow

The conquest of the city of Goma, North-Kivu, a city of two million people in the Democratic Republic of Congo in November-December 2024, followed by the conquest by the same forces of Bukavu, the capital of South-Kivu in January-February 2025, a city of one million persons, has brought to attention the use of “child soldiers”, very young people mobilized to kill and destroy. The armed forces, the regular Army of the Democratic Republic of Congo, not having been paid in some time, faded away and left the fighting largely to militias organized along clanic or ethnic lines. There are real possibilities that the fighting will spread to Rwanda and Burundi, perhaps even Uganda.

The issue of child soldiers had gained attention in the ethnic-based fighting in Liberia. Young people had also been used in fighting in Colombia, South America. Child soldiers were often accused of sexual abuse, and there were difficulties in reintegrating the youth in their home villages when the fighting stopped.

Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) active in Geneva in the United Nations’ (UN’s) human rights bodies felt that action was needed on the issue of child soldiers and began to organize on the issue. In practice, what gives NGOs their influence is not what an individual NGO can do alone but what they can do collectively. “Networking” is a key method of progress. NGOs make networks which facilitate the trans-national movement of norms and information. Such networks tend to be temporary and highly personalized. However, at the UN, they are bound together in a common desire to protect the planet and advance the welfare of humanity.

In 1979 a Special Working Group on the Rights of the Child was created under the chairmanship of the Polish representative, the legal specialist Adam Lopatka. Government and NGO representatives worked together from 1979 to 1988 for one week each year in Geneva. There was a core group, including the Association of World Citizens (AWC), which worked steadily together. Representatives of the International Committee of the Red Cross and the International Labor Organization were brought into the sessions.

The Working Group managed to come to a consensus on a final version in time for the UN General Assembly to adopt the Convention on the Rights of the Child on November 20, 1989. By creating a common legal framework of world law, the Convention on the Rights of the Child has increased levels of government accountability, bringing about legislative and institutional reforms and increasing international cooperation. As James P. Grant, then UNICEF’s Executive Director, said at the time, “Transcending its detailed provisions, the Convention on the Rights of the Child embodies the fundamental principle that the lives and the normal development of children should have first call on society’s concerns and capacities and that children should be able to depend upon that commitment in good times and bad, in normal times and in times of emergency, in times of peace and in times of war, in times of prosperity and in times of recession.”

The Convention of the Rights of the Child has an important provision banning the recruitment and use in hostilities of persons under 15 years of age. The same provision has been placed in the Rome Statute creating the International Criminal Court. These international legal standards are tools which can be used. It is difficult to reach out to the armed militias active in Congo. However, we must try, as Citizens of the World, to make world law known and put into practice.

Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.

Russia-Ukraine Armed Conflict: Start of the Last Lap?

In Being a World Citizen, Conflict Resolution, Current Events, Europe, Human Rights, Humanitarian Law, NGOs, Peacebuilding, Refugees, Solidarity, The former Soviet Union, The Search for Peace, Track II, UKRAINE, United States, War Crimes, World Law on February 22, 2025 at 9:45 AM

By René Wadlow

February 24 marks the anniversary of the start of the Russian “Special Military Operation” in Ukraine in 2022 which very quickly became a war with the large loss of life both military and civil, with the displacement of population, and a crackdown on opposition to the war. For three years, the war has continued, lap after lap. Although there were fears that the war might spread to neighboring countries, the fighting has been focused on Ukraine, and more recently on a small part of Russian territory attacked by Ukrainian forces. Can there be a realistic end to the armed conflict in sight?

On February 18, 2025, the United States (U.S.) Secretary of State, Marco Rubio, and the Russian Foreign Minister, Sergei Lavrov, met and discussed in part ending the armed conflict in Ukraine. They discussed a possible Putin-Trump summit that could be held in Saudi Arabia. Earlier, U.S. Army General Mark Milley had said, “There has to be a mutual recognition that military victory is probably, in the true sense of the word, not achievable through military means, and therefore, when there is an opportunity to negotiate, when peace can be achieved, seize it.”

However, the conflict is not one only between the USA and the Russian Federation; it also involves directly Ukraine. The Ukrainian President, Volodymyr Zelenskyy, has stressed strongly that the Ukraine government leadership wants to play a key role in any negotiations. Certain European countries such as France, Germany, Poland and Turkey have been involved in different ways in the conflict as well as in proposing possible avenues of negotiation to bring the conflict to an end. The bargaining process could be lengthy, but also it could be short as there is “handwriting on the wall.”

One key aspect concerns the fate of four Ukrainian areas “annexed” by Russia, Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson, and Zaporizhzhia largely controlled by Russian troops. President Putin has said, “These regions had been incorporated by the will of the people into the Russian Federation. This matter is closed forever and is no longer a matter of discussion.” However, the status of Crimea and the Donetsk and Luhansk People’s Republics is at the core of what President Zelenskyy wants discussed.

(C) Homoatrox

“Made in War” is the mark of origin stamped upon nearly all States. Their size, their shape, their ethnic makeup is the result of wars. There are virtually no frontiers today that are not the results of wars: world wars, colonial struggles, annexations by victors, wars against indigenous populations. States were not created by reasonable negotiations based on ethnic or geographic characteristics. If frontiers can be modified only by the victors in wars, then there must be new imaginative transnational forms of cooperation. What is needed are not new frontiers but new states of mind.

From April 5 to 7, 2023, the President of France, Emmanuel Macron, was in China and urged that China could play a key role in bringing peace to the Russia-Ukraine conflict. President Xi Jinping had made a very general 12-point peace plan to resolve the Russia-Ukraine conflict – an indication that China is willing to play a peace-making role. China is probably the only country with the ability to influence Russian policymakers in a peaceful direction.

However, there are long historic and strategic aspects to the current armed conflict. Security crises are deeply influenced both by a sense of history and current perceptions. Thus, the Association of World Citizens (AWC) encourages the development of a renewed security architecture as was envisaged by the Helsinki Final Act and the creation of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). There will be much to do to re-create an environment of trust and confidence that has been weakened by this conflict. Nongovernmental Organizations should play an active and positive role.

(C) Bernard J. Henry/AWC

Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.

Strengthening Respect for International Humanitarian Law

In Africa, Being a World Citizen, Current Events, Human Rights, Humanitarian Law, International Justice, Middle East & North Africa, NGOs, Solidarity, The former Soviet Union, The Search for Peace, Track II, UKRAINE, War Crimes, World Law on February 10, 2025 at 8:00 AM

By René Wadlow

Mirjana Spoljaric, President of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), warned on February 6, 2025 that there is a serious erosion of respect for international humanitarian law. The ICRC is, through agreements signed with most governments, the chief agency for the respect of the Geneva Conventions, the heart of international humanitarian law.

The armed conflict in Ukraine now spreading to a part of Russia and the conflict between Israelis and Palestinians, especially in the Gaza Strip, have led to the destruction of medical and educational facilities. Civilians have been directly targeted, prisoners of war abused, and hostages taken – all violations of international humanitarian law.

To this sad record of recent abuses must now be added the situation in Goma and the eastern area of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Humanitarian law should be respected by nongovernmental militias such as the M23 in Goma, but they have never signed an agreement to respect the Geneva Conventions. There have been discussions within the ICRC and other humanitarian aid agencies as to the role of nongovernmental militias with respect to international humanitarian law. These are vital discussions as the role of nongovernmental militias has become more frequent in armed conflicts.

The Association of World Citizens (AWC) played a key role in having a coalition of armed groups fighting in Burma to sign the Geneva Conventions. The signature was deposited with the Swiss Government which is the depository power for the Conventions. The signature was considered as only “symbolic” as not involving a government. However, the signature by the militias led to an exchange of prisoners showing that it was taken seriously by the Burmese government.

The AWC has strongly supported the strengthening of international humanitarian law. International humanitarian law is a central core of the broader body of world law. The strengthening of respect for humanitarian law develops a base for the application of international law and such institutions as the World Court.

As Mirjana Spoljaric, a Swiss diplomat before she became President of the ICRC, has stressed, the world society is at a crucial moment. There is a need to reaffirm respect for humanitarian law. Unfortunately, such reaffirmation is not a high priority for most Ministries of Foreign Affairs. Thus, as the AWC has urged, most recently through its appeals of March 2022, October 2023 and October 2024, there is a real possibility for NGOs to take the lead.

Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.

Goma: Cry of the Imburi

In Africa, Being a World Citizen, Conflict Resolution, Current Events, Human Rights, Humanitarian Law, NGOs, Refugees, Solidarity, The Search for Peace, Track II, United Nations, World Law on January 26, 2025 at 8:00 AM

By René Wadlow

The Imburi are spirits that are said to inhabit the forests of Gabon, in Equatorial Africa, and who cry out for those who can hear them at times of impending violence and danger. The Imburi are now crying out loudly on the increasing dangers and forced migration in Goma, capital of the North Kivu province of the Democratic Republic of Congo – democratic in name only.

The July 31, 2024 ceasefire agreement – never fully effective – has now been broken. Troops of the Tutsi-led militia known as M23 along with regular military of Rwanda are advancing toward Goma, the capital of North Kivu. The Association of World Citizens has members in Goma who keep us informed of the critical situation there – getting worse each day.

(C) UN News

People in the neighboring province of South Kivu are frightened and have started to flee. There are a large number of displaced persons in both North and South Kivu, and some have fled across the frontier into Burundi. Many people are living in displaced persons camps in difficult situations despite the efforts of the United Nations (UN), the International Committee of the Red Cross, and humanitarian aid organizations.

This eastern area of the Congo has been the scene of fighting at least since 1998 – in part as a result of the genocide in neighboring Rwanda in 1994. In mid-1994, more than one million Rwandan Hutu refugees poured into the Kivus, fleeing the advance of the Tutsi-led Rwandan Patriotic Front, which now comprises the government of Rwanda. Many of these Hutu were still armed, among them the “génocidaires” who, a couple of months before, had participated in the killing of some 800,000 Tutsi and moderate Hutu in Rwanda.

Today, there is still large-scale occurrence of serious violations of human rights and international humanitarian law by all parties with massive displacement of populations, plundering of villages, systematic rape of women, summary executions and the use of child soldiers. There is a report from the UN Group of Experts on the Democratic Republic of Congo of December 27, 2024 which outlines clearly the disintegrating situation.

Thus, there is a need to create an enabling political environment which would help develop the rule of law and a vital civil society – a vast task that the Imburi are not sure will be carried quickly enough.

Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.

President Trump: Act Two

In Being a World Citizen, Conflict Resolution, Current Events, Democracy, Human Development, Human Rights, Humanitarian Law, International Justice, Middle East & North Africa, Migration, NGOs, Nonviolence, Peacebuilding, Social Rights, Solidarity, Sustainable Development, The Search for Peace, Track II, UKRAINE, United Nations, Women's Rights, World Law on January 21, 2025 at 7:30 PM

By René Wadlow

The January 20, 2025 inauguration of President Donald Trump has brought into sharp focus the turbulent and complex world society in which we live. As peacebuilders and citizens of the world, we face the same challenges as President Trump but with a different style and with far fewer resources at our command. We make plans but then are called to work for conflict resolution in unanticipated ways.

There are four policy challenges which face both President Trump and World Citizens: armed conflicts, currently ongoing and potential, persistent poverty in many areas, the erosion of international law and faith in multinational institutions, particularly the United Nations (UN), and the consequences of climate change.

The ongoing and potential armed conflicts are neither new nor unexpected. The Israeli-Palestinian tensions exist at least since 1936 and increased after the creation of the State of Israel. There may be some possibilities for negotiations in good faith. We must keep an eye open for possible actions.

Tensions with Iran are not new. The Soviet forces in part of Iran was the first conflict with which the UN had to deal in its early days. However, the rule by the Ayatollahs has made matters more complex.

The Russian-Ukrainian war grinds on with a large number of persons killed, wounded, and uprooted. Again, we must look to see if a ceasefire and negotiations are possible.

In Asia, the armed conflict in Myanmar between the military in power and the ethnic militias dates from the creation of the Burmese State at the end of the Second World War. A potential armed conflict between Mainland China and Taiwan dates from 1949 and the Nationalist government’s retreat to Taiwan. The potential armed conflict between the two Korean States dates from 1950 and the start of the Korean War.

The armed conflicts in Africa are no longer in the headlines, but they date from the early 1960s and the breakup of the European Empires: the Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan, the States of the Sahel.

Thus, we all have a poor record of armed conflict prevention and mediation. Armed conflicts should remain at the top of both the governmental and nongovernmental agenda for action.

(C) U.S. Embassy France on Instagram

Persistent Poverty: Despite the UN Decades for Development, the Sustainable Development Goals, and Article 22 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which states that everyone is entitled to the economic, social, and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and free development of his personality, persistent poverty exists in many parts of the world. One consequence of persistent poverty is migration from poorer to richer areas, both within countries and from poorer to richer States. Migration is a hotly debated issue in many countries, as right-wing nationalist groups make anti-migration their battle cry. Migration is likely to become an even more heated topic of debate as President Trump tries to carry out his proposal for a mass deportation of immigrants from the USA.

Linked to persistent poverty are trade issues and the protectionist trends in many countries. President Trump has proposed higher tariffs for good coming into the USA. This policy may set off tariff wars. Obviously to counter persistent poverty, world development policies must be improved – easier said than done!

The Erosion of International Law and Faith in Multinational Institutions: Armed conflicts and persistent poverty are closely related to the third issue: the receding United States (U.S.) involvement with the UN, the World Bank, the IMF, the World Court and other multinational organizations. Some of the foreign policy authorities appointed by President Trump are overtly critical of the UN and the International Criminal Court. There has already been an Executive Order to halt U.S. funding of the World Health Organization. However, there is no unifying vision of what a new world society would involve. The battle cry of “Make America Great Again”, if repeated by each State for itself, “Make Panama Great Again”, could be a loud concert but not conducive to positive decision making.

The Consequences of Climate Change: The fourth major group of issues concerns the consequences of climate change and the ways to lessen its impact. During the campaign for the presidency, Trump threatened to pull the USA out of the Paris Climate Agreement, and he has now signed an Executive Order doing so. The issue of climate change has been brought to the world agenda by scientists on the one hand, and by Nongovernmental Organizations and popular, often youth-led efforts, on the other hand. It is likely that these vital efforts related to climate change will continue despite climate policy resistance by some in the Trump administration.

President Trump said during his inaugural ceremony that “The Golden Age of America begins now… We stand on the verge of the four greatest years in American history.” We will have to watch closely and judge in four years. What is sure for peacebuilders and citizens of the world is that we stand on the verge of four more years of serious challenges. Thus, there is a need for cooperative and courageous action.

Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.

The Genocide Convention: An Unused but not Forgotten Standard of World Law

In Being a World Citizen, Human Rights, Humanitarian Law, International Justice, NGOs, Solidarity, The Search for Peace, Track II, United Nations, War Crimes, World Law on December 9, 2024 at 7:00 AM

By René Wadlow

Genocide is the most extreme consequence of racial discrimination and ethnic hatred. Genocide has as its aim the destruction, wholly or in part, of a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group as such. The term was proposed by the legal scholar Raphael Lemkin, drawing on the Greek genos (people or tribe) and the Latin –cide (to kill) (1). The policies and war crimes of the Nazi German government were foremost on the minds of those who drafted the Genocide Convention, but the policy was not limited to the Nazis (2).

The Genocide Convention is a landmark in the efforts to develop a system of universally accepted standards which promote an equitable world order for all members of the human family to live in dignity. Four articles are at the heart of this Convention and are here quoted in full to understand the process of implementation proposed by the Association of World Citizens (AWC), especially of the need for an improved early warning system.

Article I

In the present Convention, genocide means any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such:

(a) Killing members of the group;

(b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group;

(c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;

(d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;

(e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.

Unlike most humanitarian international law which sets out standards but does not establish punishment, Article III sets out that the following acts shall be punishable:

(a) Genocide;

(b) Conspiracy to commit genocide;

(c) Direct and public incitement to commit genocide;

(d) Attempt to commit genocide;

(e) Complicity in genocide

Article IV

Persons committing genocide or any of the other acts enumerated in article III shall be punished, whether they are constitutionally responsible rulers, public officials or private individuals.

Article VIII

Any Contracting Party may call upon the competent organs of the United Nations to take such action under the Charter of the United Nations as they consider appropriate for the prevention and suppression of acts of genocide or any of the other acts enumerated in article III.

Raphael Lemkin
(C) Center for Jewish History, New York City

Numerous reports have reached the Secretariat of the United Nations (UN) of actual, or potential, situations of genocide: mass killings; cases of slavery and slavery-like practices, in many instances with a strong racial, ethnic, and religious connotation — with children as the main victims, in the sense of article II (b) and (c). Despite factual evidence of these genocides and mass killings as in Sudan, the former Yugoslavia, Rwanda, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Sierra Leone and in other places, no Contracting Party to the Genocide Convention has called for any action under article VIII of the Convention.

As Mr. Nicodème Ruhashyankiko of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities wrote in his study of proposed mechanisms for the study of information on genocide and genocidal practices “A number of allegations of genocide have been made since the adoption of the 1948 Convention. In the absence of a prompt investigation of these allegations by an impartial body, it has not been possible to determine whether they were well-founded. Either they have given rise to sterile controversy or, because of the political circumstances, nothing further has been heard about them.”

Yet the need for speedy preventive measures has been repeatedly underlined by UN Officials. On December 8, 1998, in his address at UNESCO, UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan said “Many thought, no doubt, that the horrors of the Second World War — the camps, the cruelty, the exterminations, the Holocaust — could not happen again. And yet they have, in Cambodia, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, in Rwanda. Our time — this decade even — has shown us that man’s capacity for evil knows no limits. Genocide — the destruction of an entire people on the basis of ethnic or national origins — is now a word of our time, too, a stark and haunting reminder of why our vigilance must be eternal.”

In her address Translating words into action to the UN General Assembly on December 10, 1998, the then High Commissioner for Human Rights, Ms. Mary Robinson, declared “The international community’s record in responding to, let alone preventing, gross human rights abuses does not give grounds for encouragement. Genocide is the most flagrant abuse of human rights imaginable. Genocide was vivid in the minds of those who framed the Universal Declaration, working as they did in the aftermath of the Second World War. The slogan then was ‘never again’. Yet genocide and mass killing have happened again — and have happened before the eyes of us all — in Rwanda, Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia and other parts of the globe.”

In a telegram sent from Paris in December 1948, Raphael Lemkin asked Ms. William Dick Sporberg, a member of the United States Committee for a United Nations (UN) Genocide Convention, to organize a cable campaign to persuade the United States Mission to the UN to support the adoption of the convention. Until the very last minute, no efforts were to be spared if the Genocide Convention was to come to existence and make the hopes of a whole generation traumatized by wide-scale extermination come true. (C) Google Cultural Institute/Center for Jewish History

We need to heed the early warning signs of genocide. Officially directed massacres of civilians of whatever numbers cannot be tolerated, for the organizers of genocide must not believe that more widespread killing will be ignored. Yet killing is not the only warning sign. The Convention drafters, recalling the radio addresses of Hitler and the constant flow of words and images, set out as punishable acts “direct and public incitement to commit genocide”. The Genocide Convention, in its provisions concerning public incitement, sets the limits of political discourse. It is well documented that public incitement — whether by Governments or certain non-governmental actors, including political movements — to discriminate against, to separate forcibly, to deport or physically eliminate large categories of the population of a given State, or the population of a State in its entirety, just because they belong to certain racial, ethnic, or religious groups, sooner or later leads to war. It is also evident that, at the present time, in a globalized world, even local conflicts have a direct impact on international peace and security in general. Therefore, the Genocide Convention is also a constant reminder of the need to moderate political discourse, especially constant and repeated accusations against a religious, ethnic, and social category of persons. Had this been done in Rwanda, with regard to the Radio Mille Collines, perhaps that premeditated and announced genocide could have been avoided or mitigated.

For the UN to be effective in the prevention of genocide, there needs to be an authoritative body which can investigate and monitor a situation well in advance of the outbreak of violence. As has been noted, any Party to the Genocide Convention (and most States are Parties) can bring evidence to the UN Security Council, but none has. In the light of repeated failures and due to pressure from nongovernmental organizations, the Secretary-General has named an individual advisor on genocide to the UN Secretariat. However, he is one advisor among many, and there is no public access to the information that he may receive.

Therefore, a relevant existing body must be strengthened to be able to deal with the first signs of tensions, especially “direct and public incitement to commit genocide.” The Committee for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) created to monitor the 1965 International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination would be the appropriate body to strengthen, especially by increasing its resources and the number of UN Secretariat members which service the CERD. Through its urgent procedure mechanisms, CERD has the possibility of taking early-warning measures aimed at preventing existing strife from escalating into conflicts, and to respond to problems requiring immediate attention. A stronger CERD more able to investigate fully situations should mark the world’s commitment to the high standards of world law set out in the Genocide Convention.

————————————————————————————–

Notes

1) Raphael Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe (Washington: Carnegie Endowment for World Peace, 1944)

2) For a good overview, see: Samantha Power, A Problem from Hell: America and the Age of Genocide (New York: Basic Books, 2002)

3) E/CN.4/Sub.2/1778/416, Para 61

Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.

Rape as a Weapon of War in Sudan: Counter Measures Needed

In Africa, Being a World Citizen, Conflict Resolution, Current Events, Human Rights, Humanitarian Law, International Justice, Modern slavery, NGOs, Refugees, Solidarity, Sudan, The Search for Peace, Track II, United Nations, War Crimes, World Law on November 25, 2024 at 8:00 AM

By René Wadlow

Sudan’s armed conflict which began on April 15, 2023 is between two former allies. On one side is General Abdel Fattah Al Burham of the Sudanese Armed Forces; on the other side is General Mohamed Hamdan Dagulo, known by his battle name of Hemedhi of the Rapid Support Forces. The conflict, which has spread to 14 of the 18 provinces of Sudan, has killed and wounded tens of thousands of civilians, displaced nearly 8 million people, and forced over two million to flee to neighboring countries. The agriculture of the country is disorganized, and many people face acute hunger.

There has been an appalling range of human rights and international humanitarian law violations including indiscriminate airstrikes and shelling against civilians, hospitals, and vital water services. The warring parties and their respective militia allies have made rape a weapon of war and have organized markets where women are sold for sexual slavery.

Rape harms not only the woman raped but also the whole family system. Often, the husband repudiates his wife. The whole family may scorn her. In a country where “the family” is a wide circle of people, the repudiated woman has few people to whom to turn for support. As was done by the “Islamic State” (IS, or Da’esh) in Iraq and Syria, sexual slave markets have been created where women are bought or exchanged.

So far, efforts by the United Nations (UN) and regional governments for a ceasefire and negotiations have not led to constructive action. Thus, the conflictual situation requires close cooperation among UN agencies, humanitarian and peace Nongovernmental Organizations.

Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.

World Citizens Appeal to Uphold International Humanitarian Law

In Being a World Citizen, Conflict Resolution, Current Events, Human Rights, Humanitarian Law, International Justice, Middle East & North Africa, NGOs, Nonviolence, Solidarity, The Search for Peace, United Nations, War Crimes, World Law on October 11, 2024 at 6:00 AM

By René Wadlow

The armed conflicts in the Middle East: Israel-Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Iran, Yemen have led to increased violations of International Humanitarian Law. Medical facilities and medical personnel have been attacked; civilians have been targeted, educational facilities destroyed. Therefore, the Association of World Citizens (AWC) makes an urgent call for the respect of International Humanitarian Law. This must be a joint effort of governments and Nongovernmental Organizations.

Regular military personnel of all countries are theoretically informed of the rules of the Geneva Conventions of August 12, 1949, and the Protocol Additional adopted in 1977.

When the 1949 Geneva Conventions were drafted and adopted, it was possible to spell out in considerable detail rules regarding prisoners of war and the protection of civilians, in particular Common Article 3 (so called because it is found in all four Conventions) provides that “each Party to the conflict shall be bound to apply, as a minimum, the following provisions: Persons taking no active part in the hostilities … shall in all circumstances be treated humanely without any adverse distinction founded on race, color, religion or faith, sex, birth or wealth, or any other similar criteria.”

The importance of Common Article 3 should not be underestimated. It sets out in straightforward terms important protections that all parties to a conflict must respect. In order to meet the need for additional protection, international humanitarian law has evolved to cover not only international armed conflict but also internal armed conflict. Today, international human rights standards are also considered part of international humanitarian law, thus providing additional protection for vulnerable population groups such as women, children, and minorities.

As situations of internal violence and strife proliferate, abuses committed by non-State actors, such as armed militias, are increasing concerns. Fundamental standards of international humanitarian law are intended to ensure the effective protection of human beings in all situations. The standards are clear. (1)

There are two major weaknesses in the effectiveness of international humanitarian law. The first is that many people do not know that it exists and that they are bound by its norms. Thus, there is an important role for greater promotional activities, the dissemination of information through general education, specific training of the military, outreach to armed militias, and cooperation with a wide range of nongovernmental organizations.

The second weakness is that violations of international humanitarian law are rarely punished. Governments too often tolerate these violations. Few soldiers are tried, or courtmartialed, for the violations of international humanitarian law. This weakness is even more true of nongovernmental militias and armed groups.

In fact, most violations of international humanitarian law are not actions of individual soldiers or militia members carried away by a sudden rush of anger, fear, a desire of revenge or a sudden sexual urge to rape a woman. Soldiers and militia members violating the norms of international humanitarian law are acting on orders of their commanders.

Thus, the only sold response is an act of conscience to refuse an order of a military or militia higher up and refuse to torture, to bomb a medical facility, to shoot a prisoner, to harm a child, and to rape a woman. Conscience, that inner voice which discerns what is right from wrong and encourages right action is the value on which we can build the defense of international humanitarian law. The defense of conscience to refuse unjust orders is a large task but a crucial action for moving toward a law-based world society.

Notes

(1) For useful guides to international humanitarian law see:

D. Schindler and J. Toman, The Laws of Armed Conflicts (Martinus Nihjoff Publishers, 1988)

H. McCoubrey and N.D. White, International Law and Armed Conflicts (Dartmouth Publishing Co., 1992)

Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.