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BOOK REVIEW: Metta Spencer, “The Russian Quest for Peace and Democracy”

In Human Rights, Current Events, Solidarity, Democracy, Conflict Resolution, The Search for Peace, United Nations, Being a World Citizen, The former Soviet Union, United States, NGOs, Track II, Nonviolence, Peacebuilding, Book Review on January 7, 2026 at 8:00 AM

By René Wadlow

Metta Spencer, The Russian Quest for Peace and Democracy.

New York: Lexington Books, 2010, 348pp.

With the violence and tensions in Ukraine and the reactions of the USA, Russia, and NATO, some writers have spoken of a “New Cold War”. Thus, it is useful to look at how civil society representatives helped to keep lines of communication open during the first Cold War (1945-1990), in particular how Gorbachev’s advancement of democracy and peaceful foreign relations was fostered by private conversations with members of international civil society and NGOs.

There is in the Agni Yoga teachings of Helena Roerich, to which Raisa Gorbachev was particularly devoted, a line which says, “Not the new is proclaimed but what is needed for the hour.” This idea became a guideline for Mikhail Gorbachev whose new thinking was not really new. Many of us had been saying the same thing for years before, but none of us was head of state.

Gorbachev’s September 1987 address to the United Nations (UN) General Assembly was a clear call for the rule of law both domestically and internationally. He recommended greater use of the International Court of Justice and that all states accept its compulsory jurisdiction. He called upon the permanent members of the Security Council to join in formulating guidelines to help lead the way. This was a renunciation of a sixty-year resistance to the World Court that the then Foreign Minister Maxim Litvinov − though an internationalist − had initiated in 1922 claiming that there could be no impartial arbitrator between the Soviet and the non-Soviet world saying, “Only an angel could be impartial in judging Russian affairs.”

Unfortunately, the United States (U.S.) State Department took the speech as a propaganda ploy to further embarrass the U.S. over the World Court’s Nicaragua litigation. Therefore, the U.S. delegation to the UN did everything it could to hinder discussion of giving the World Court a larger role and was successful in stopping any effort to expand compulsory jurisdiction.

Gorbachev did all he could to strengthen the peace-making role of the UN, leading to the successful completion of what had been seemingly endless negotiations at the Palais des Nations in Geneva concerning the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan, and the very difficult negotiations, also in Geneva, between Iraq and Iran to end their war.

Progress was also made on the Vietnamese occupation of Kampuchea (Cambodia) which led to the 1992 Paris Accord. This combination of deescalation in tensions and violence in the international area and significant steps in arms control was largely due to the leadership of Gorbachev. His seven years in power (1985-1991) left the world a safer place and Russia a more openly pluralistic society. However, the common ground on which he tried to stand was constantly eroded by forces he could not control, leaving him at the end with no place to stand.

Metta Spencer, Editor of Peace Magazine and professor emeritus of sociology at the University of Toronto tells some of this story, especially through interviews with persons in Gorbachev’s inner circle as well as other participants in the fast-changing scene. She has continued her interviewing so that persons also reflect on events and trends in post-Gorbachev Russia − the Yeltsin and early Putin years.

What is most helpful to those of us interested in citizen diplomacy and who were involved in talks with Soviets on arms control is her account on how discussions with members of the Soviet Academy of Sciences’ institutes, especially the USA/Canada Institute of Georgi Arbatov and the Institute for World Economy and International Relations (IMEMO) had an impact on Soviet decision-making. As Spencer notes, Gorbachev’s advancement of democracy and peaceful foreign relations was fostered by private conversations with members of international civil society. Among the Soviets who participated, some became Gorbachev’s chief advisors.

The ground for these discussions had started relatively early at the time of Nikita Khrushchev. The Pugwash meetings started in 1957, and the Dartmouth conferences led by Norman Cousins and Georgi Arbatov began in 1960.

Metta Spencer sets out clearly the core of her book. Democracy, human rights, and nonviolence are rarely reinvented independently by local citizens. Usually, they are imported from abroad and spread by personal contacts in international civil society, not by diplomats or rulers. That was the way it happened in the Soviet Union. This book describes how certain back-channel relationships with foreign peace researchers and activists influenced the Soviet Union’s brief democratization, its foreign policy and its military doctrine. She adds that transnational civil society or organizations are most helpful for they create heterogeneous relationships − those that tend to bridge society’s disparate elements. Such relationships inform and strengthen individuals who, in an authoritarian setting, face heavy pressures to conform.

Metta Spencer’s interviews with people well after the events, give a sense of necessary distance, of the strengths and weaknesses of movements and individuals.

Note

1) For a good overview of citizen diplomacy efforts with the Soviet Union, see the following listed by date of publication:

Gale Warner and Michael Shuman, Citizen Diplomats: Pathfinders in Soviet-American Relations − And How You Can Join Them (New York: Continuum, 1987)

David D. Newsom (Ed.), Private Diplomacy with the Soviet Union (Lanham, MD.: University Press of America, 1987)

Gale Warner, Invisible Threads: Independent Soviets Working for Global Awareness and Social Transformation (Washington, DC: Seven Locks Press, 1991)

Matthew Evangelista, Unarmed Forces: The Transnational Movement to End the Cold War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999)

Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.

BOOK REVIEW: Giles Milton, “The Stalin Affair: The Impossible Alliance That Won the War”

In Being a World Citizen, Book Review, Democracy, Europe, Fighting Racism, The former Soviet Union on January 5, 2026 at 8:00 AM

By Raphael Cohen-Almagor

Giles Milton, The Stalin Affair: The Impossible Alliance That Won the War.
New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2024, 336pp.

This is a gripping narrative of the uneasy partnership between Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin during World War II. Drawing on unpublished diaries, letters, and secret reports, Milton reveals how a diverse cast of diplomats and political figures—including U.S. billionaire envoy W. Averell Harriman, his charming daughter Kathy and Archibald “Archie” Clark Kerr, the British ambassador to the Soviet Union—worked to manage Stalin’s volatile temperament and secure Soviet cooperation against Hitler.

The book explores how Churchill, despite his deep mistrust of Stalin, recognized the strategic necessity of alliance after Hitler’s invasion of the Soviet Union. It also details the internal resistance in both Britain and the U.S., where many preferred isolationism or hoped the two dictators would destroy each other. The turning point came with Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor and Hitler’s declaration of war on the United States, forcing a reluctant unity.

The book is filled with many small stories, impressions, romantic affairs and anecdotes that shed light on historic events and on the personalities of the three leaders who came together to fight Nazism – Churchill out of conviction, Stalin as a result of Hitler’s betrayal, and Roosevelt due to the Japanese surprise attack on the American navy in Hawaii. The colourful descriptions are captivating. Of particular interest is the story of Churchill’s “naughty document”. Officially known as the Percentages Agreement, this informal pact was struck between Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin during the Fourth Moscow Conference in October 1944. On a simple scrap of paper, Churchill proposed dividing postwar influence in Eastern Europe by percentages—essentially carving up the region into spheres of control. The document suggested to divide post-war countries between the Soviet Union and Britain, behind Roosevelt’s back. The countries and percentages were: Romania: 90% Soviet, 10% others; Greece: 90% British (in accord with the U.S.), 10% Soviet; Yugoslavia: 50/50; Hungary: 50/50, and Bulgaria: 75% Soviet, 25% others. Churchill famously referred to it as his “naughty document” because he knew how blunt and imperialistic it appeared. He even remarked that the Americans would be “shocked” by its crudeness. Stalin reportedly ticked the paper in approval, and the agreement was honoured in some cases—most notably in Greece, where Britain retained dominant influence even during civil unrest. The document was later published in Churchill’s memoirs and has since become a symbol of the realpolitik that shaped the postwar order.

Milton paints vivid scenes of nervous negotiations, clashing personalities, festive dinners and the fragile diplomacy that held the alliance together long enough to defeat Nazi Germany—though it ultimately could not survive the postwar tense reality. The book offers both sweeping historical insight and intimate character studies, making it a compelling read for anyone interested in the political complexities behind wartime strategy.

Prof. Raphael Cohen-Almagor is an Israeli-British academic.

Helsinki Process: Need for Renewal

In Being a World Citizen, Conflict Resolution, Current Events, Europe, Human Rights, NGOs, OSCE, Peacebuilding, Solidarity, The former Soviet Union, The Search for Peace, Track II, UKRAINE, World Law on August 28, 2025 at 6:00 PM

By René Wadlow

The difficulties to begin negotiations on an end to the Russia-Ukraine armed conflict has highlighted the need for a renewal of the Helsinki process of Pan-European dialogue and action. The Helsinki process which began in 1973 led over time to the creation of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE).

Government leaders met in Helsinki in July 1973, sensing a need for some form of permanent discussion on European security issues beyond the ad hoc meetings among some states, which was then the current pattern. From September 1973 to July 1975, the discussion on structures and efforts to be undertaken moved to Geneva and was carried out by diplomats stationed there. Although the representatives of Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) were not asked to participate, many of us who were NGO representatives to the United Nations in Geneva knew the European diplomats involved and were able to make suggestions as to the priorities – human rights and arms control.

The foreign ministers taking part in the CSCE conference in Helsinki in 1973 (C) Pentti Koskinen

In August 1975, the Geneva discussions terminated, the government leaders met again in Helsinki and signed the Helsinki Agreement. Relatively quickly, a series of meetings on crucial topics was organized, often in Geneva. NGO representatives were invited to participate and played an important role in developing confidence-building measures.

Although there were tensions among OSCE states in the past such as the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan in 1979 and the martial law crackdown in Poland, the divisions were never as strong as they are today, linked to the Russia-Ukraine conflict. The OSCE has been weakened, and some see a death sentence in a near future. Thus, there is a need for a renewal of the OSCE and a revival of the Helsinki spirit. Non-governmental organizations may have to take a lead, given the current governmental divisions.

Members of the OSCE’s Special Monitoring Mission deployed in eastern Ukraine (C) OSCE Special Monitoring Mission to Ukraine

In the 1980s, NGOs had played an important role in “détente from below” in creating opportunities for discussions among activists from Eastern and Western Europe. Today we must find avenues of action to meet the current complex and dangerous situation. Representatives of the Association of World Citizens have participated in meetings of the OSCE and will be active in this renewal process.

Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.

Russia-Ukraine Armed Conflict: Start of the Last Lap?

In Being a World Citizen, Conflict Resolution, Current Events, Europe, Human Rights, Humanitarian Law, NGOs, Peacebuilding, Refugees, Solidarity, The former Soviet Union, The Search for Peace, Track II, UKRAINE, United States, War Crimes, World Law on February 22, 2025 at 9:45 AM

By René Wadlow

February 24 marks the anniversary of the start of the Russian “Special Military Operation” in Ukraine in 2022 which very quickly became a war with the large loss of life both military and civil, with the displacement of population, and a crackdown on opposition to the war. For three years, the war has continued, lap after lap. Although there were fears that the war might spread to neighboring countries, the fighting has been focused on Ukraine, and more recently on a small part of Russian territory attacked by Ukrainian forces. Can there be a realistic end to the armed conflict in sight?

On February 18, 2025, the United States (U.S.) Secretary of State, Marco Rubio, and the Russian Foreign Minister, Sergei Lavrov, met and discussed in part ending the armed conflict in Ukraine. They discussed a possible Putin-Trump summit that could be held in Saudi Arabia. Earlier, U.S. Army General Mark Milley had said, “There has to be a mutual recognition that military victory is probably, in the true sense of the word, not achievable through military means, and therefore, when there is an opportunity to negotiate, when peace can be achieved, seize it.”

However, the conflict is not one only between the USA and the Russian Federation; it also involves directly Ukraine. The Ukrainian President, Volodymyr Zelenskyy, has stressed strongly that the Ukraine government leadership wants to play a key role in any negotiations. Certain European countries such as France, Germany, Poland and Turkey have been involved in different ways in the conflict as well as in proposing possible avenues of negotiation to bring the conflict to an end. The bargaining process could be lengthy, but also it could be short as there is “handwriting on the wall.”

One key aspect concerns the fate of four Ukrainian areas “annexed” by Russia, Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson, and Zaporizhzhia largely controlled by Russian troops. President Putin has said, “These regions had been incorporated by the will of the people into the Russian Federation. This matter is closed forever and is no longer a matter of discussion.” However, the status of Crimea and the Donetsk and Luhansk People’s Republics is at the core of what President Zelenskyy wants discussed.

(C) Homoatrox

“Made in War” is the mark of origin stamped upon nearly all States. Their size, their shape, their ethnic makeup is the result of wars. There are virtually no frontiers today that are not the results of wars: world wars, colonial struggles, annexations by victors, wars against indigenous populations. States were not created by reasonable negotiations based on ethnic or geographic characteristics. If frontiers can be modified only by the victors in wars, then there must be new imaginative transnational forms of cooperation. What is needed are not new frontiers but new states of mind.

From April 5 to 7, 2023, the President of France, Emmanuel Macron, was in China and urged that China could play a key role in bringing peace to the Russia-Ukraine conflict. President Xi Jinping had made a very general 12-point peace plan to resolve the Russia-Ukraine conflict – an indication that China is willing to play a peace-making role. China is probably the only country with the ability to influence Russian policymakers in a peaceful direction.

However, there are long historic and strategic aspects to the current armed conflict. Security crises are deeply influenced both by a sense of history and current perceptions. Thus, the Association of World Citizens (AWC) encourages the development of a renewed security architecture as was envisaged by the Helsinki Final Act and the creation of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). There will be much to do to re-create an environment of trust and confidence that has been weakened by this conflict. Nongovernmental Organizations should play an active and positive role.

(C) Bernard J. Henry/AWC

Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.

Strengthening Respect for International Humanitarian Law

In Africa, Being a World Citizen, Current Events, Human Rights, Humanitarian Law, International Justice, Middle East & North Africa, NGOs, Solidarity, The former Soviet Union, The Search for Peace, Track II, UKRAINE, War Crimes, World Law on February 10, 2025 at 8:00 AM

By René Wadlow

Mirjana Spoljaric, President of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), warned on February 6, 2025 that there is a serious erosion of respect for international humanitarian law. The ICRC is, through agreements signed with most governments, the chief agency for the respect of the Geneva Conventions, the heart of international humanitarian law.

The armed conflict in Ukraine now spreading to a part of Russia and the conflict between Israelis and Palestinians, especially in the Gaza Strip, have led to the destruction of medical and educational facilities. Civilians have been directly targeted, prisoners of war abused, and hostages taken – all violations of international humanitarian law.

To this sad record of recent abuses must now be added the situation in Goma and the eastern area of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Humanitarian law should be respected by nongovernmental militias such as the M23 in Goma, but they have never signed an agreement to respect the Geneva Conventions. There have been discussions within the ICRC and other humanitarian aid agencies as to the role of nongovernmental militias with respect to international humanitarian law. These are vital discussions as the role of nongovernmental militias has become more frequent in armed conflicts.

The Association of World Citizens (AWC) played a key role in having a coalition of armed groups fighting in Burma to sign the Geneva Conventions. The signature was deposited with the Swiss Government which is the depository power for the Conventions. The signature was considered as only “symbolic” as not involving a government. However, the signature by the militias led to an exchange of prisoners showing that it was taken seriously by the Burmese government.

The AWC has strongly supported the strengthening of international humanitarian law. International humanitarian law is a central core of the broader body of world law. The strengthening of respect for humanitarian law develops a base for the application of international law and such institutions as the World Court.

As Mirjana Spoljaric, a Swiss diplomat before she became President of the ICRC, has stressed, the world society is at a crucial moment. There is a need to reaffirm respect for humanitarian law. Unfortunately, such reaffirmation is not a high priority for most Ministries of Foreign Affairs. Thus, as the AWC has urged, most recently through its appeals of March 2022, October 2023 and October 2024, there is a real possibility for NGOs to take the lead.

Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.

Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons: Need for New Common Security Approaches

In Being a World Citizen, Current Events, Latin America, Middle East & North Africa, NGOs, Nuclear weapons, Spirituality, The former Soviet Union, The Search for Peace, Track II, United Nations, World Law on July 23, 2024 at 6:00 AM

By René Wadlow

Hiroshima, Japan, August 6, 1945.

Government representatives and some Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) are participating from July 22 to August 2, 2024 in Geneva, Switzerland in the Preparatory Session for the Review Conference on the Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons. As the political and strategic situation in the world can evolve over time, the Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) had as one of its provisions (Article VIII) that a review conference be held every five years to judge the situation and to see if new elements should be added. At the end of each Review a “Chairman’s Statement” must be agreed upon by all the States present.

The NPT, which had taken 10 years to negotiate, was proclaimed in 1970, and the first Review Conference was held in Geneva in 1975. As the Review Conference was a meeting of the States Party to the Treaty and not a regular United Nations (UN) disarmament negotiation, NGO representatives had more opportunity for interaction with governments. NGO texts were considered as “official documents” and were printed and distributed by the conference secretariat. I was asked to chair the group of NGO participants, which I did both in 1975 and 1980. As a result of my chairing the NGOs at the 1975 Review, I was invited to Moscow to discuss with Soviet military and arms control specialists. I have remained concerned with the issues ever since.

Each Review Conference has been concerned with the three fundamental aspects of the Treaty: non-proliferation, promotion of the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and the disarmament initiatives of the five nuclear-weapon States when the Treaty was signed: the USA, USSR, the United Kingdom, France, and China as set out in Article VI.

To make matters more complicated but politically realistic, the policies of nuclear-weapon States which have not signed the NPT – India, Pakistan, Israel, North Korea – color the discussions of each Review. Iran is a State Party to the NPT, but questions have been raised about the effectiveness of the control of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) on Iran’s peaceful nuclear activities and if nuclear material is being enriched to weapon-production levels.

The nuclear weapons of Israel and their meaning for Middle East policies have long been “an elephant in the room” – too large not to notice but too dangerous to deal with if anything else in the Review process is to be done. In 1995, there was an annex to the final Chairman’s Statement of the Review proposing that a conference on a potential nuclear-weapon-free Middle East should be called. In practice, “the time was never ripe”, but the concept is still there.

The concept of nuclear-weapon-free zones has been an important concept in disarmament and regional conflict-reduction efforts. A nuclear-weapon-free zone was first suggested by the Polish Foreign Minister, Adam Rapacki, at the UN General Assembly in October 1957 – just a year after the crushing of the uprising in Hungary. The crushing of the Hungarian revolt by Soviet troops and the unrest among Polish workers at the same time showed that the East-West equilibrium in Central Europe was unstable with both the Soviet Union and the USA in possession of nuclear weapons, and perhaps a willingness to use them if the political situation became radically unstable. The Rapacki Plan, as it became known, called for the denuclearization of East and West Germany, Czechoslovakia and Poland.

The Plan went through several variants which included its extension to cover reduction of armed forces and armaments, and as a preliminary step, a freeze on nuclear weapons in the area. The Rapacki Plan was opposed by the NATO powers, in part because it recognized the legitimacy of the East German State. It was not until 1970 and the start of what became the 1975 Helsinki Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) that serious negotiations on troop levels and weapons in Europe began. While the Rapacki Plan never led to negotiations on nuclear-weapon policies in Europe, it had the merit of restarting East-West discussions which were then at a dead point after the Hungarian uprising.

Adam Rapacki

The first nuclear-weapon-free zone to be negotiated – the Treaty of Tlatelolco – was a direct aftermath of the Cuban missile crisis of October 1962. It is hard to know how close to a nuclear exchange between the USA and the USSR the Cuban missile crisis was. It was close enough so that Latin American leaders were moved to action. While Latin America was not an area in which military confrontation was as stark as in Europe, the Cuban missile crisis was a warning that you did not need to have standing armies facing each other for there to be danger.

Mexico, under the leadership of Ambassador Alfonso Garcia-Robles at the UN, began immediately to call for a denuclearization of Latin America. There were a series of conferences, and in February 1067 the Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America was signed at Tlatelolco, Mexico. For a major arms control treaty, the Tlatelolco was negotiated in a short time, due partly to the fear inspired by the Cuban missile crisis but especially to the energy and persistence of Garcia-Robles and the expert advice of William Epstein, the UN’s Director of Disarmament Affairs. The Treaty established a permanent and effective system of control which contains a number of novel and pioneering elements as well as a body to supervise the Treaty.

Alfonso Garcia Robles (C) Marcel Antonisse

On September 8, 2006, the five States of Central Asia – Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan – signed a treaty establishing a nuclear-weapon-free zone. The treaty aims at reducing the risk of nuclear proliferation and nuclear-armed terrorism. The treaty bans the production, acquisition, deployment of nuclear weapons and their components as well as nuclear explosives. Importantly, the treaty bans the transportation of nuclear weapons as both Russia and the USA have established military airbases in Central Asia where nuclear weapons could have been placed in times of crisis in Asia.

Superman is not coming to rid the world of nuclear weapons. World Citizens need to take the problem to UN delegates by themselves. Or own Quest for Peace deserves a happy ending too.

It is an unfortunate aspect of world politics that constructive, institution-building action is usually undertaken only because of a crisis. Perhaps the growing pressures in the Middle East could lead to concerted leadership for a Middle East nuclear-weapon-free zone. The IAEA has the technical knowledge for putting such a zone in place. Now there needs to be leadership from within the Middle East as well as from the broader international community. There are urgent needs for new common security approaches.

Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.

Reestablishing a Europe-wide Security Zone

In Conflict Resolution, Current Events, Europe, NGOs, Solidarity, The former Soviet Union, The Search for Peace, Track II, UKRAINE, United Nations on June 23, 2024 at 7:00 AM

By René Wadlow

On June 15, 2024, Russian Federation Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov stated that “Russia will not view Western European countries as possible partners for at least one generation. The acute phase of the military-political confrontation with the West continues and is in full swing.” He was echoed in an interview by Deputy Foreign Minister Sergey Ryabkov who said that NATO is “a group in which we feel not an ounce of trust, which triggers political and even emotional rejection in Moscow.”

It is likely that the two Sergeys express a view held by many governmental decision-makers in Moscow. Where they are wrong is that the world cannot wait for one generation to reestablish a Europe-wide security zone but most start now. Given current governmental preoccupations, it is likely that nongovernmental organizations must take the lead.

In the 1960s, the idea of a European security conference was launched by the USSR followed in 1966 by a proposal of the Warsaw Pact Organization. After a good deal of discussion and some modifications of policies, especially the West German Ostpolitik, it was decided to convene a Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe. At the invitation of the Finnish government, multilateral preparatory talks began near Helsinki in November 1972. There were numerous preparatory aspects, especially the subjects of such a conference.

The admission card to the Conference for Security and Cooperation Meeting in Helsinki for Erich Honecker, the hardline Communist ruler of East Germany from 1971 to 1989
(C) Wikimedia Commons-HajjiBaba

Thus, the main issues of the conference were transferred for negotiation to Geneva, Switzerland to be undertaken by experts. During this period of negotiations in Geneva, nongovernmental organization (NGO) representatives in Geneva who were known for their activities at the United Nations (UN) were able to present proposals for possible consideration. The Association of World Citizens (AWC) was particularly active in presenting ideas on the resolution of conflicts and the possible use of arbitration as an appropriate means of dispute settlement. The Helsinki process later created an arbitration body in Geneva, but it is little used. The Association was also active with other NGOs in what was called the “human dimension” of the Helsinki agreement. The conference had deliberately not used a human rights vocabulary. The extensive participation of nongovernmental representatives is recognized in the text of the Final Act and encouraged to continue. The results of the Geneva negotiations led to the signature of the Final Act in Helsinki on August 1, 1975.

Today, it is likely that the Russia-Ukraine conflict starting with the 2014 annexation of Crimea has ended the effectiveness of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). Thus, in many ways, we are “back to square one” in the organization of a Europe-wide security zone with many more States to be involved due to the breakup of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia. There is also the issue of what has been called “The Phantom Republics”: Abkhazia and South Ossetia in Georgia, Transnistria in Moldova, Kosovo, formerly part of Serbia, and the disputed Donetsk and Luhansk People’s Republics in Ukraine. These are “ministates” economically fragile, potentially manipulated by more powerful States but which will not be reintegrated into their former State even if granted significant autonomy.

There is a rich heritage of efforts made within the OSCE. However, the OSCE has also very real limitations. It has a tight budget and a lack of specialized personnel. Much of the staff are diplomats seconded from national governments. This results in a high turnover of staff and a lack of primary loyalty to the organization. Nevertheless, the OSCE has been able to respond to situations which were not foreseen at its creation. Much of the future depends on the attitude of the Russian Federation which at present seems negative. New avenues are likely to be needed, and NGOs may again be able to play positive roles.

Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.

Start to Dangerous Regression of Liberty in Georgia: A Situation to Watch Closely

In Being a World Citizen, Conflict Resolution, Current Events, Democracy, Europe, Human Rights, NGOs, Solidarity, The former Soviet Union, Track II, World Law on May 16, 2024 at 7:00 PM

By René Wadlow

Despite strong protests from Georgian Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) and street protests for three weeks in the capital Tbilisi, the Georgian Parliament adopted on May 14, 2024 the controversial law on “foreign influence”. The vote was 84 in favor and 30 opposed. The law is likely to be vetoed by the Georgian President, Salomé Zourabichvili, a former French diplomat, but there are probably enough favorable votes in the Parliament to override the veto.

The law is very close to a similar law of 2012 in the Russian Federation used to hinder NGOs often considered to be “enemy agents” voicing opposition to the government. The law obliges NGOs and media to publish all financing from foreign governments, foundations, and individuals if it amounts to 20 or more percent of the funds of the organization. The law has been strongly opposed by officials of the European Union and the United States. Georgia has a candidate status for joining the European Union.

(C) Euronews

The former Prime Minister and leader of the Georgian Dream Party in power for the last 12 years, Bidzina Ivanichvili, has attacked those opposed to the law as “people without a country” – a term used in the Soviet Union in the 1930s. He has been playing with a fear among some in power in Georgia that NGOs with foreign funding could create a “color revolution” to overthrow the government as was done elsewhere.

In the days prior to the vote, there was strong government pressure against journalists and NGO representatives, some being beaten and many threatened by telephone calls. As Citizens of the World concerned with the role of NGOs and freedom of the press, we need to watch developments in Georgia closely.

Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.

The Uprooted

In Being a World Citizen, Current Events, Europe, Human Rights, Humanitarian Law, Middle East & North Africa, Migration, NGOs, Refugees, Solidarity, The former Soviet Union, The Search for Peace, UKRAINE, United Nations, World Law on April 30, 2024 at 6:00 AM

By René Wadlow

Increasing numbers of people in countries around the world have been forced from their homes by armed conflicts and systematic violations of human rights. Those who cross internationally recognized borders are considered refugees and are relatively protected by the refugee conventions signed by most states. The 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 protocol give the United Nations (UN) High Commissioner for Refugees an international legal basis to ensure the protection of refugees.

However, those who are displaced within a country as is the case currently for many in the Gaza Strip and in Ukraine are not protected by the international refugee conventions. Thus, displacement within a State poses a challenge to develop international norms and ways to address the consequences of displacement and the possibility to reintegrate their homes, though in the case of Gaza many of the homes have been destroyed.

Refugees from Ukraine arrive in Poland (C) European Union

Armed conflicts within States often reflect a crisis of identity within the State. This can occur when a State becomes monopolized by a dominant group to the exclusion or marginalization of other groups. There is a need to provide protection and assistance to the uprooted. The UN High Commissioner for Refugees has been able to act in some cases as has been true also for the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) which is mandated to protect civilians in war zones. The obligation to assist populations in immediate danger of starvation is largely recognized, and the UN World Food Program has been able to act. In some cases, nongovernmental humanitarian agencies have been able to be active. However, each situation requires new negotiations and results differ.

Thus, what is essential is that there be predictable responses in situations of internal displacement and that attention be paid not only to material assistance but also to the human rights of those displaced. To be effective, strategies to address mass displacement need to be broad and comprehensive. There is a need for political initiatives that seek to resolve the conflicts as the consequences often involve neighboring countries. Efforts must engage local groups, national institutions, and Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) to prevent situations that lead to persons being uprooted. As the representatives of NGOs, we have an opportunity to discuss with other NGOs the most appropriate next steps for action.

Prof. René Wadlow is President of the Association of World Citizens.

Missak Manouchian : A un grand homme, le Monde reconnaissant ?

In Armenia, Being a World Citizen, Current Events, Democracy, Europe, Fighting Racism, Human Rights, Literature, Middle East & North Africa, Poetry, Solidarity, The former Soviet Union, The Search for Peace, United Nations, World Law on February 21, 2024 at 7:00 AM

Par Bernard J. Henry

Aussi étonnant que cela puisse paraître à qui connaît mal le mouvement Citoyen du Monde, lorsqu’il s’est manifesté pour la première fois sous sa forme contemporaine pendant l’Assemblée générale de l’ONU au Palais de Chaillot, à Paris, en novembre 1948, ce fut sous la conduite de deux hommes qui avaient porté les armes de leurs pays respectifs, les Etats-Unis et la France, pendant la Seconde Guerre Mondiale.

Pour les Etats-Unis, c’était bien sûr Garry Davis, acteur et danseur à Broadway qui rêvait d’une carrière à Hollywood. Après la mort au combat de son frère Bud à Salerno, en Italie, dévasté par le chagrin puis embrasé par le désir de vengeance, le jeune artiste était devenu pilote de bombardier dans l’U. S. Air Force et, désormais sous-lieutenant, il avait participé à un raid sur la base allemande de Peenemünde où officiait Wernher von Braun qui, après la capitulation de l’Allemagne nazie, a joué un rôle majeur dans le programme spatial américain. En 1948, pris de remords d’avoir contribué à détruire des villes et bombarder des civils, Davis choisira de se rendre à Paris pour renoncer à son passeport américain et se proclamer Premier Citoyen du Monde.

Pour la France, c’était Robert Soulage, dit Sarrazac, instituteur de formation. A l’occasion de son service militaire comme élève-officier de réserve, le jeune Soulage avait fait la connaissance du lieutenant Henri Frenay qui, après le départ de l’armée de Soulage en 1942, l’avait entraîné avec lui dans la Résistance où il était devenu Sarrazac. Arrêté en janvier 1944, il était parvenu à s’évader et, ayant réintégré la Résistance, il avait organisé les maquis puis participé à la Libération. En 1947, il sera parmi les fondateurs du Front humain des Citoyens du Monde.

C’est ensemble que les deux anciens soldats, à présent unis dans une cause sans nation ni drapeau et, surtout, sans arme ni victime, interrompront l’Assemblée générale de l’ONU pour y lire à haute voix la Déclaration d’Oran écrite par Albert Camus.

Traditionnellement synonyme de pacifisme inconditionnel et de refus des frontières nationales, même si c’est là un résumé bien sommaire et réducteur de ce qu’elle représente – et, si on l’applique à l’AWC, une description si simpliste de son action qu’elle en serait tout simplement inexacte –, la Citoyenneté Mondiale contemporaine est donc bien issue de la Seconde Guerre Mondiale, plus spécifiquement de la lutte contre le nazisme. C’est aussi le cas des Nations Unies, organisation intergouvernementale par excellence depuis 1945 mais, auparavant, alliance militaire contre l’Axe, née du suprême paradoxe historique qui faisait du patriotisme armé de l’instant présent la condition sine qua non de l’universalisme pacifiste de l’avenir.

Qui, à l’époque, pouvait prétendre avoir le choix ? Pour ne parler que de l’Allemagne hitlérienne, le danger du fascisme tel qu’il se manifestait à travers l’Europe depuis les années 1930 et, dans un monde en guerre, l’horreur qu’inspirait l’idée d’un Axe vainqueur et dominant le monde pour un millier d’années, comme en rêvait Adolf Hitler, imposait de prendre les armes et, au besoin, de se joindre à un rival dont l’on se méfiait, comme s’y étaient résignés Churchill et de Gaulle, voire à son pire adversaire idéologique, comme l’avaient fait Roosevelt et Staline, pour vaincre un ennemi commun et empêcher à tout prix sa victoire. Les frontières ne comptaient plus, qu’elles soient nationales, idéologiques ou autres, face au péril fasciste.

Ce 21 février 2024, en France, un pays où l’extrême droite n’a jamais été politiquement aussi forte depuis la Libération d’août 1944 invite au Panthéon, lieu symbolique où reposent les plus grandes gloires du pays, un homme et son épouse qui sont deux symboles des plus vibrants de la lutte antifasciste de cette époque – Missak et Mélinée Manouchian, membres actifs de la Résistance, le premier ayant été pour cela fusillé voilà très précisément quatre-vingts-ans aujourd’hui. Un hommage aussi mérité et bienvenu qu’il est tardif, et qui ne peut que nous rappeler qu’aucun hommage au passé ne vaut s’il n’en sort un acte de vigilance pour le présent et l’avenir, tant éloigné que plus proche.

Manouchian, mort pour la France – qui ne voulait pas de lui

Né en 1906 dans l’actuelle Turquie, alors le siège de l’Empire ottoman, le jeune Missak a neuf ans lorsque son père tombe les armes à la main dans la résistance arménienne au génocide qui vient de débuter. Poussé vers l’exil avec sa mère et ses frères, devenu vite orphelin, Missak se retrouve en orphelinat d’abord en Turquie puis au Liban, confié avec son frère Garabed à des enseignants arméniens.

C’est en 1924 qu’il débarque en France, y rejoignant Garabed à Marseille où ils travaillent comme ouvriers. L’année suivante, les deux frères s’installent à Paris, économisant jusqu’à pouvoir faire venir à leurs côtés leur frère Haïg depuis la Syrie. Après avoir été brièvement interné en psychiatrie après le décès de Garabed en mars 1927 qu’il ne parvient pas à surmonter, Missak Manouchian, admirateur des Encyclopédistes inspirateurs de la Révolution française, athlète et poète tout à la fois, rencontre la Confédération générale du Travail (CGT), syndicat historiquement lié au Parti Communiste Français (PCF) auquel il adhère en 1934, encore sous le choc de la tentative de coup d’Etat des ligues fascistes du 6 février à Paris.

Missak Manouchian

Dans le même temps, Missak Manouchian devient membre de la section française du Comité de secours pour l’Arménie (Hay(astani) Oknoutian Gomidé ; HOG) et y fait la connaissance d’une jeune femme, Mélinée Assadourian. En 1935, les deux jeunes gens sont élus à la direction du HOG et, l’année suivante, ils se marient – plus exactement, ils obtiennent un «certificat de coutume en vue de mariage» car ils sont, l’un et l’autre, apatrides. Après la dissolution du HOG en 1937 et jusqu’en 1939, le rôle militant de Missak Manouchian s’accroît au sein du PCF, et pour la première fois en France, le jeune survivant du génocide arménien rencontre la répression.

Début septembre 1939, depuis le pacte germano-soviétique signé le mois précédent, les députés du PCF sont interdits de siéger, le parti et ses organisations connexes sont interdits et ses cadres sont en prison. Arrêté le 2, veille de la déclaration de la guerre, Missak Manouchian, qui a tenté en 1933 de devenir français mais sans succès, est libéré le mois suivant et, toujours apatride, il rejoint comme engagé volontaire une unité militaire en Bretagne, demandant une nouvelle fois sa naturalisation en janvier 1940 et essuyant un nouveau refus.

Après l’armistice de juin 1940, Missak Manouchian est maintenu de force en usine dans la Sarthe. C’est en 1941 qu’il s’en enfuit pour revenir à Paris, où le militant communiste jadis arrêté sous la République à cause du pacte germano-soviétique l’est de nouveau, cette fois par les autorités d’occupation, peu après la rupture du même pacte par l’Allemagne nazie et son invasion de l’URSS le 22 juin. Emprisonné à Compiègne, il est libéré sans charge et retrouve Mélinée à Paris.

Mélinée Assadourian Manouchian

En 1943, Missak Manouchian, désormais Michel, devient membre des Francs-tireurs et Partisans – Main-d’œuvre immigrée (FTP-MOI) de Paris, groupe de Résistance issu du PCF, où ses camarades sont pour l’essentiel des Juifs de Roumanie et de Hongrie ainsi que des Arméniens comme lui, quoique moins nombreux. En août, Michel Manouchian est promu Commissaire militaire de la Région parisienne des FTP-MOI, multipliant les actions contre l’occupant dans son secteur de juridiction en novembre. Mais le 16 au matin, la Police française, de longue date sur ses traces, l’arrête à la gare d’Évry Petit-Bourg avec son supérieur politique Joseph Epstein.

Torturé d’entrée, Michel Manouchian est traduit devant le Tribunal militaire allemand du Grand-Paris le 19 février 1944, lors d’un simulacre de procès mis en scène pour la presse collaborationniste qui se régale du lynchage de ceux de l’Affiche rouge, placardée à l’envi par les services de Vichy, reprenant les visages de Manouchian et des membres de son groupe, chacun y étant fustigé sur son origine étrangère et/ou sa judéité auxquelles sont accolés ses faits d’armes qualifiés d’«attentats», la question en haut de l’affiche «Des libérateurs ?» trouvant sa réponse en bas : «La Libération par l’armée du crime !».

L’Affiche rouge, recto-verso

Sans surprise, le tribunal condamne à mort vingt-trois des accusés. Et le 21 février 1944, à Suresnes, dans l’actuel Département des Hauts-de-Seine, au sein de la Forteresse du Mont Valérien, jadis symbole de la résistance du peuple français à l’armée allemande pendant la guerre de 1870 et, inéluctablement, sous contrôle ennemi depuis 1940, Michel Manouchian, qui a refusé d’avoir les yeux bandés devant le peloton d’exécution, tombe sous les balles du fascisme. Deux fois refusé à la naturalisation, Missak Manouchian, apatride né dans la communauté arménienne de l’Empire ottoman, mourait ainsi pour la France alors qu’elle n’avait jamais voulu de lui parmi les siens.

Le 11 avril, Joseph Epstein subira le même sort au même endroit.

En tout, ce sont plus d’un millier de combattants de la France Libre qui seront fusillés à la Forteresse du Mont Valérien. Le 18 juin 1960, Charles de Gaulle, général et chef de la France Libre devenu Président de la République en 1958, y inaugurera le Mémorial de la France Combattante. Chaque année à la même date, le chef de l’Etat français y retrouve les autorités locales pour un hommage au pied du sanctuaire orné d’une croix de Lorraine, symbole de la Résistance gaulliste, et d’une flamme entretenue jour et nuit dont il est écrit sur place que «la flamme de la Résistance ne doit pas s’éteindre et ne s’éteindra pas».

Le Mémorial de la France Combattante du Mont Valérien (C) Bernard J. Henry/AWC

En 1959, Léo Ferré, chanteur franco-monégasque aux idées anarchistes assumées, donc hostile tant au gaullisme qu’au communisme, met en musique les Strophes pour se souvenir de Louis Aragon parues quatre ans plus tôt, sous le titre L’Affiche rouge que reprendra en 1976 le cinéaste Frank Cassenti pour raconter sur grand écran l’histoire de Michel Manouchian et ses frères d’armes dans la Résistance. Malgré ces vibrants hommages artistiques, ce n’est qu’en novembre 1978 que la ville d’Ivry-sur-Seine, dans l’actuel Département du Val-de-Marne, érigera un monument à ceux de l’Affiche rouge et les y fera inhumer. Selon l’idéologie qui animait les Résistants français, toutes leurs mémoires ne se valaient pas.

Mélinée, veuve, biographe et gardienne de la mémoire

Quant à Mélinée, ayant d’abord pris la fuite avec l’aide d’une famille arménienne résistante de Paris, les Aznavourian, dont le fils Shahnourh deviendra plus tard le chanteur Charles Aznavour, elle poursuit la lutte au sein du milieu arménien de la Résistance. Après la Libération, elle publie un recueil des poèmes de feu son époux qu’elle a traduits de l’arménien.

En 1947, répondant à l’appel de l’URSS à ses anciens ressortissants pour venir œuvrer au repeuplement, elle part pour Erevan, capitale de l’Arménie soviétique, où elle enseigne le français. Mais son dégoût du stalinisme et un cancer mal soigné la poussent à vouloir revenir en France, ce qu’elle n’est autorisée à faire qu’en 1960 avec l’avènement de Nikita Khrouchtchev.

Première biographe de Missak Manouchian, elle consacrera sa vie à promouvoir sa mémoire et celle des Arméniens de la Résistance. Après une vive polémique dans les années 1980 avec la direction du PCF sur le rôle du parti dans la mise en danger de Missak Manouchian qu’elle avait alors cherché à protéger, Mélinée s’éteint en 1989. Inhumée à Ivry-sur-Seine près de son époux mais non avec lui, elle le rejoint finalement en 1994, cinquante ans après l’exécution au Mont Valérien.

Aujourd’hui, sur la décision du Président de la République française, Emmanuel Macron, c’est ensemble qu’ils entrent au Panthéon.

Une histoire personnelle

J’habite Suresnes depuis plus de quinze ans. Je suis né à Saint-Cloud, ville voisine, et suis originaire de Rueil-Malmaison, autre ville voisine, toutes deux situées en partie comme Suresnes et Nanterre sur le Plateau du Mont Valérien. L’histoire des fusillés de la forteresse occupée est dans ma vie depuis toujours. Si je ne suis pas arménien et n’ai pas une goutte de sang en commun avec Missak Manouchian, son histoire est aussi mon histoire, l’histoire de la France et, pour moi, une histoire personnelle.

Pendant l’Occupation, une partie de ma famille maternelle habitait Nanterre, et en cette époque de bruit urbain autrement moins important qu’aujourd’hui – amoindri plus encore par les restrictions de circulation des autorités allemandes – lorsqu’une exécution avait lieu au Mont Valérien, les coups de feu s’entendaient jusque chez eux, sur le Plateau. Pour ces immigrés du nord de l’Italie, eux aussi membres de la Résistance alors que certains n’avaient jamais pu obtenir la nationalité française du temps de la Troisième République, c’était aussitôt la pensée qu’un jour, peut-être, ce serait leur tour de se retrouver devant les fusils.

Même ceux d’entre eux qui étaient toujours italiens avaient porté les armes pour la France. Non mobilisés en 1939 puisque n’étant pas citoyens français, mais sujets du Royaume d’Italie qui vivait depuis octobre 1922 sous la terreur fasciste de Benito Mussolini, c’est pourtant vers l’armée qu’ils se sont tournés en octobre 1940, lorsque Rome a rejoint son allié allemand dans la guerre contre la France. Désormais ressortissants d’un État ennemi, ils se voyaient déjà soit internés dans un camp, l’un de ces camps d’étrangers créés par le gouvernement issu du Front populaire à partir de 1938, soit déportés vers cette Italie qu’ils avaient fuie. Unanimement, ils se sont engagés dans l’armée française où leur origine italienne leur a valu d’être versés dans les Chasseurs alpins pour aller, à la frontière sud-est du pays, tirer sur leurs compatriotes. Prisonniers de guerre, certains n’obtinrent finalement la nationalité française qu’en 1953, huit ans après la fin de la Seconde Guerre Mondiale. Et aucune décoration que je sache.

Durant son «procès» devant le Tribunal militaire allemand du Grand-Paris, Missak Manouchian a jeté à la face de ses juges «La nationalité française, vous l’avez héritée, et nous, nous l’avons méritée». Mes proches ancêtres à moi l’ont eue, au risque même de leurs vies, et pourtant, les Français qui l’ont «héritée» ne se sont jamais privés de leur faire remarquer qu’ils étaient au départ des étrangers. Entre qui voulait seulement défendre sa terre ancestrale passée sous la botte de l’ennemi héréditaire s’étant montré plus fort au combat et qui voulait défendre le pays incarnant à ses yeux une idée, une liberté et presque un droit, tout le monde en France n’avait pas rejoint la même Résistance.

L’histoire de Missak Manouchian et de ceux de l’Affiche Rouge, c’est aussi mon histoire à moi, celle de la migration ouvrière et de la résistance au fascisme par-delà les nationalités et les idéologies. L’histoire du pays qui envoie aujourd’hui même le couple Manouchian reposer parmi ses plus grands mais qui, ne serait-ce qu’à travers ses dirigeants, à coups de lois sur la migration à forte teneur xénophobe et de discours «de patience malvenue», comme le chante Louis Chedid dans Anne ma sœur Anne, affirme de plus en plus fort que les héritiers politiques des Français qui ont collaboré avec l’occupant allemand ne sont pas plus dangereux que ceux des Résistants, au risque de leur offrir bientôt le pouvoir et leur permettre y compris d’anéantir, ne serait-ce que de décharner, l’histoire de la Résistance au-delà de celle de Français n’ayant cherché qu’à chasser de chez eux un ennemi étranger, sans forcément dire non à une forme de fascisme «maison» à la place.

Tout le monde en France n’a pas, comme moi, la Résistance en héritage familial. Dans d’autres familles, c’est au contraire la collaboration avec l’Allemagne nazie qui forme le passif, ou bien encore l’absence de choix d’un camp, peut-être au profit du seul impératif de survie. Une chose est sûre toutefois : le pays où nous vivons, cette France libre et démocratique, c’est bel et bien l’œuvre des Manouchian, de Robert Sarrazac et de leurs camarades de la Résistance, ce n’est pas l’État français du Maréchal Pétain auquel auraient succédé les Quatrième puis Cinquième République, comme en Espagne où la monarchie a succédé au franquisme même sans en poursuivre les politiques fascistes, à l’inverse du Portugal voisin où la Révolution des Œillets avait marqué une rupture claire et nette avec le salazarisme. Renier ou minimiser l’héritage de la Résistance, le reléguer en quelque façon au rang de passé révolu tout juste digne de la cave ou du grenier, pour chaque Française ou Français, c’est scier la branche où l’on est assis.

Comment dès lors, et surtout pourquoi, chercher à honorer dans le passé ce que l’on démonétise dans le présent ? Les honneurs rendus aux Manouchian sont-ils le premier pas vers un changement plus qu’attendu, celui du retour aux «leçons de l’histoire» chères à Elie Wiesel et George Santayana, ou bien un solde de tout compte avant de dire pour de bon que la France d’aujourd’hui ne doit plus rien à la Résistance ?

Le monde reconnaissant ?

Bien sûr, la politique de l’oubli ne touche pas que la France. Avec Donald Trump, les Etats-Unis avaient eux aussi cédé à la tentation d’oublier les grands combats de leur histoire, qu’il s’agisse de la Guerre de Sécession ou de l’héroïsme des G.I. en Normandie voilà quatre-vingts ans, et le risque existe toujours de voir, en novembre prochain, un retour à ce choix de l’oubli après quatre ans d’administration démocrate. En Italie, les héritiers politiques de Mussolini ont conquis le pouvoir. En Argentine, un candidat d’inspiration semblable, Javier Milei, a pris la présidence, et aux Pays-Bas, le parti populiste de Geert Wilders a lui aussi remporté une majorité parlementaire mais sans pouvoir quant à lui former un gouvernement. Dans l’ancien monde communiste, la Hongrie, le Belarus et bien sûr la Russie se distinguent comme les plus tragiques exemples de l’abandon d’un extrême pour verser dans son opposé. La liste n’étant hélas pas exhaustive.

Les derniers témoins de la Seconde Guerre Mondiale, en ce compris de la Shoah en Europe, disparaissent. Ce temps était voué à arriver un jour ou l’autre. Mais leurs souvenirs, leurs récits, leurs mises en garde pour le présent, leurs avertissements pour l’avenir sont aussi nombreux qu’ils sont éternels. Que les témoins de l’horreur rejoignent le monde qui attend chacune et chacun au bout de l’existence, rien que de très normal. Mais qu’ils le fassent en un temps où leur héritage se voit si méprisé, voire dans certains cas contesté, cela ne peut que résonner comme un assourdissant signal d’alarme.

A Paris, le Panthéon porte en son fronton l’inscription «Aux grands hommes la Patrie reconnaissante», reliquat d’un temps où les femmes n’étaient pas jugées dignes de cette reconnaissance. Ce n’est qu’en 1995, avec Marie Curie, qu’une femme fut enfin admise au Panthéon, du moins pour ses mérites, la toute première ayant été, en 1907, Sophie Berthelot, l’épouse du chimiste Marcellin Berthelot qui n’avait fait que suivre le sort de son mari.

Le Panthéon à Paris (C) Guilhem Vellut

Parmi ces «grands hommes» et donc aussi désormais «grandes femmes» reposent déjà d’autres figures de la Résistance. En 1964, André Malraux y accueillait un autre ancien Résistant, légendaire préfet cadre puis martyr de la France libre, par ces mots devenus eux aussi légendaires, «Entre ici, Jean Moulin, avec ton terrible cortège», André Malraux qui rejoignit à son tour le Panthéon en 1996, où il prenait place aux côtés de deux autres figures de la Résistance, Félix Éboué et René Cassin, père de la Déclaration universelle des Droits de l’Homme. En 2015, quatre autres Résistants intégraient la crypte sacrée de la République – Pierre Brossolette, Geneviève de Gaulle-Anthonioz, Germaine Tillion et Jean Zay.

Ce n’est pas que «la Patrie», comme l’appellent les Français du haut du Panthéon, qui peut et doit leur être reconnaissante ainsi qu’aux Manouchian. C’est un monde qui, tout entier, jusqu’aux confins de la Cordillère des Andes dans une Amérique latine qui n’a jamais vu la Seconde Guerre Mondiale sur son sol, a été façonné par la lutte contre le fascisme et tout ce qu’elle a produit après la victoire.

Tout d’abord, la Déclaration universelle des Droits de l’Homme, promue par Cassin aux côtés d’Eleanor Roosevelt et que Garry Davis qualifiait, bien optimiste, de «reconnaissance politique de l’être humain». Ensuite, l’idée qu’il n’existait aucune raison pour qu’une partie du monde continue à s’approprier comme dans les temps anciens la terre, la population, les ressources et le travail de peuples en habitant d’autres, ce qui amena la fin du colonialisme occidental.

Enfin, le principe fondamental, mais si violemment bousculé depuis le début de la décennie, que la guerre de conquête et l’extermination de masse ne se justifient pas même par la guerre, ni dans les Sudètes, en Tchécoslovaquie ou en Pologne à l’époque, ni en Syrie, en Ukraine ou en Israël et dans les Territoires palestiniens aujourd’hui.

Le soldat français tué en tentant de défendre un village en mai 1940, le soldat anglais tué sur son sol natal lors du Blitz allemand, le soldat soviétique tué par la Wehrmacht dans l’ouest de la Russie après la rupture par Hitler de son pacte avec Staline, le soldat américain tué le 6 juin 1944 sur une plage de Normandie, le Résistant ou partisan tué au combat en France, en Italie ou ailleurs, tous ces héros inconnus et qui le resteront, tous méritent la reconnaissance. Mais aujourd’hui, Missak Manouchian est mis à l’honneur par celui des cinq Membres permanents du Conseil de Sécurité qui fut à la fois le plus meurtri en son territoire et le plus actif au combat contre l’Axe durant la Seconde Guerre Mondiale. C’est là un acte qui est tout autant à saluer qu’à interroger.

Quel exemple, quelle leçon, entend en tirer la France aux Nations Unies et dans sa politique étrangère – mais aussi, car le besoin en est réel, intérieure ? Quel engagement solennel, quel acte de vigilance pour l’avenir proche et lointain, viendra valider cet hommage au passé ? Quelle reconnaissance de la France, mais aussi du monde, à Missak Manouchian, «grand homme» à partir d’aujourd’hui, et à Mélinée Manouchian qui rejoint ainsi Simone Veil et Joséphine Baker, sortira de cette canonisation laïque si elle n’est un pur vœu pieux ?

La réponse se trouvera dans notre aptitude à, et/ou notre volonté de, savoir délaisser les congratulations officielles pour embrasser l’esprit et, c’est là que le mot convient le mieux, la lettre de ce qu’écrivait Missak, ou Michel, Manouchian dans son poème «Privation» :

«Quand j’erre dans les rues d’une métropole,

Toutes les misères, tous les dénuements,

Lamentation et révolte l’une à l’autre,

Mes yeux les rassemblent, mon âme les loge».

A Paris, au Quartier Latin, nous verrons passer Manouchian depuis son éternité, errant dans les rues de la métropole, et ses combats, nous les ferons nôtres. Ou bien, à Paris et partout dans le monde, enchaînés de plein gré dans notre ingratitude envers ces combats qui écrivirent toute son histoire, toute la nôtre, toute celle du monde, nous perdrons tout.

Bernard J. Henry est Officier des Relations Extérieures de l’Association of World Citizens.